The demographic changes have resulted in an increased proportion of older people in the population in several countries. To have a large proportion of older people in the population is a situation that is historically unique and basically something positive. Despite this, the aging population is discussed as a problem as it puts pressure on pension systems and health care systems. As education and learning have contributed to positive development in several ways, the interest for older adults learning has increased. Education that occurs later in life can be considered as a means of supporting participation in an extended working life, as a democratic citizen, and as a way of promoting well-being.

Research on older adults learning is considered the fastest growing branch of adult education in post-industrial countries and one of the most crucial challenges facing current adult European education (Formosa, 2000). Older adults learning focuses on the diverse provision of late-life learning, the motivations and interests of older learners, participation in and emancipatory policies for older adult learning, and the benefits of learning at different levels (Schmidt-Hertha, Formosa & Fragoso, 2019). Research in a Swedish context has provided insights into different aspects of older adults learning, such as intergenerational relationships, motivations and benefits, inclusion and participation, online and offline learning, working-life and guidance. The presentation will engage in a dialogue about these topics.

Drawing on data derived from a nationwide postal survey (n = 1264) with a simple random sample of Swedes between ages 65 and 85 (response rate: 63%), the article analyses the general patterns of: (a) degrees of information and communication (ICT) access and (b) ICT-literacy among Swedish senior citizens. The overall patterns of access and literacy are analysed in light of senior citizens’ assets – conceptualized as material, discursive and social resources – and their age and gender. The analysis reveals a positive correlation between levels of material (e.g., income), discursive (e.g., English skills) and social (e.g., social networks) resources and access to ICT. With greater resources, the average number of devices increases. The analysis also reveals a positive correlation between discursive and social resources and ICT-literacy. Gender has no bearing on access to devices, but might have some effect on ICT-literacy. The correlation between age, access and literacy is negative. With increasing age, both access and literacy decreases. In this respect, the study reveals a generational effect. However, since all three resources tend to decrease over the life cycle, the results are also discussed in terms of an age effect. These data and our analyses are contextualized by a critical discussion that reflects on the implications of these general patterns: What do they mean for senior citizens’ abilities to be included and participate in a continuously digitalizing society?

Inspired by the theoretical notion of media repertoires, this article analyses what online repertoires Swedish senior citizens construct in everyday life. It answers two research questions: What online repertoires do elderly users have? How do elderly users’ online repertoires vary depending on their access to material, discursive and social resources? The article draws on data from a large, representative Swedish survey (n = 1264, response rate 63%), and uses correlations and multiple regression analysis to identify and analyse online repertoires with reference to elderly users’ access to resources such as income, infrastructure, level of education and social networks. The analysis reveals a significant element of selectivity in the online repertoires of elderly users. It also shows strong connections between different Internet activities. In addition, it offers substantial evidence in support of the proposition that individuals who are resource rich have broader repertoires and higher frequency of usage than other users. 

According to international statistics, Sweden is one of the world’s most internet connected nations. The most recent data reveal that approximately 90per cent of all Swedes have online access through various devices, such as computers and/or mobile phones. The fact that online access is widespread hasbeen interpreted as a useful opportunity. Among governmental agencies it has been referred to as an opportunity to make public services more availableand effective. Also healthcare has become a part of this. With the advent of online portals for health information and communication, Swedish healthcareagencies hope to be able to provide better services, but also to make their contacts with care seekers and patients more efficient. The ambition to make allkinds of societal services more accessible and effective via online applications presupposes a number of important prerequisites. It presupposes widespreadaccess to devices and ICT-applications. It further presupposes that all citizens, who are the inscribed users, have competence and skills enough to also makeuse of them. For research, senior citizens make up a specifically interesting category of citizens in this context. They have lived through the transformationsfrom analogue to digital services and are also expected to start to adapt to them. According to general, national statistics, however, their levels of access toand use of ICT-applications are clearly lower than for younger people. Meanwhile, senior citizens are by no means a coherent group of ICT-users. Hence, it isvital to attend to differences between and similarities within the overall category “senior citizens” in order to gain insights into what these transformationsmean in terms of “inclusion in” or potential “exclusion from” for varying groups of citizens. In this paper we depart from and aim to further develop the conceptmaterial resources (Murdoch et al., 1992; Warschauer, 2003; Olsson, 2007) – here measured by an index including household income and home ownership– when analysing different groups of senior citizens as ICT users. To what extent do senior citizens’ varying access to material resources influence…• …their access to various ICT-devices (computers, smart phones, iPads, etc.)? • …the ways in which these devices are put to use? • …their perceivedlevels of ICT-literacy? The paper presents and analyses data from a recent Swedish survey (November 2015-January 2016). Data are derived from a nationalSRS of 2000 senior citizens (+65 years), with a response rate of 64 percent. Out initial analyses reveal that access to material resources are influencing allof the above mentioned aspects (access to devices, use of devices, perceived literacy, and more). The correlation is, as expected, positive: with increasingresources, follows increasing access, use and sense of literacy. In the light of these data the paper problematizes emerging patterns of digital inclusion andexclusion among senior citizens and their potential societal consequences.

This doctoral thesis focusses on digital (in)equality; a new concept construed by combining the notions equality and inequality. The concept will for the purpose of this thesis be written as (in)equality constituting a new domain of study as explored in four separate studies together comprising this thesis.

The general aim of the thesis is to increase the knowledge base of digital (in)equality by empirically charting and theoretically interpreting the use of in-formation and communication technology (ICT) by children and adults alike. A specific focus is how ICT is utilised in schools since the Swedish school system is commissioned by law to provide equal education for all. Compulsory school pupils' use and access to ICT in schools as well as at home was investigated both by a survey study and an interview study. In addition, pupils' general digital competence as well as their skills in searching information were studied in order to gain insight into digital (in)equality. The Swedish school system and its role in conveying such competence was a particular concern. Results are presented in two of the four articles constituting this doctoral thesis.

To gain a wider understanding of the ICT (in)equality phenomenon an international outlook was incorporated into thesis in the form of a systematic literature review. This literature review is presented in the third article of the thesis. The fourth and final study widens the scope even further by analysing the phenomenon in the light of sociological theory. The general aim of the thesis was scrutinised and critically analysed using Nathan Selwyn's construct of Technology Capital, which in turn is derived from Pierre Bourdieu's notion of cultural capital. Technology capital defines both access to and the use of ICT, which of course also implies that ICT indeed has cultural value.

The results of this sociological analysis showed that there does indeed exist a digital inequality amongst the younger generation in Sweden in spite of having easy access to the technology. It is demonstrated that the Swedish school system actually fails its commission. In respect to the use of and access to ICT the school system is not equal and pupils do not receive equal education. Furthermore, the analysis suggested that the task given to the school system is unclear and that the use of a concept such as technological capital is a promising one in gaining further insights into the phenomenon of digital (in)equality. In conclusion, suggestions are also made how the notion of technology capital could be further developed made more precise.

Research topic/aim: The aim with this study is to give an empirical understanding of 13 years old Swedish pupils attitudes and user patterns of ICT during school and every day life. The findings will also be discussed in relation to the lack of national ICT strategies for the educational system in Sweden.

Theoretical framework: The children we meet in school today belong to the so called digital generation. In the concept “digital generation” lies a lot of theoretical  assumptions, but few empirical facts. The idea of a homogeneous cohort with specific demands on the educational system has been questioned and empirical understanding of children and youth’s use of and attitudes to ICT has been asked for. Sweden constitute an interesting research context in this area. National and international reports has drawn attention to Sweden as a highly developed ICT culture. On the other hand there is a lack in Swedish national ICT strategies for the educational system. ICT strategies and the use of ICT as a tool for learning and education becomes a local concern. There has also been reported a critical attitude to ICT as a tool for learning and education among Swedish teachers. But a lack of national strategies and guidelines, or supportive teachers, does not restrain children from using ICT. With a high penetration of computers and access to the Internet in the Swedish households, a majority of the Swedish children have opportunities to develop their own skills and attitudes to ICT irrespective from educational goals and teachers guiding. This context opens for differentiated user patterns and skills among the young Swedish ICT users.

Methodology/research design: Through a survey among all 13-years old (N=276) children in a Swedish municipality, with a response rate at 92.7%, data have been collected about the children’s attitudes and user patterns of ICT during school and every day life.

Expected conclusions/findings: The findings reveals a heterogeneous group of ICT users with a lack in ICT skills. It is also concluded that ICT primarily is a tool for amusement, not for learning and education.

Relevance for Nordic Educational research: To be able to develop educational systems that meet the needs among today’s children and youth, there is a need for empirical based descriptions of young ICT users.

Swedish children have grown up in a digital culture, but have internalized information and communication technology (ICT) in different ways and gained most of their knowledge by peer‐based learning. The aim of this study is to give an empirical understanding of patterns of ICT use among Swedish children. The data are collected through a survey including all 13‐year‐old children in a municipality (N = 256). The results show that all children have access to ICT but they use it in various ways. The children’s use of ICT differs in both qualitative and quantitative ways, but there is a lack in basic computer skills as well as seriousness about ICT use as a tool for education and learning. These findings should be seen in relation to Sweden’s ranking as a mature e‐society, and at the same time, the Swedish National Agency for Education asking for more explicit national strategies and guidelines for ICT use in the educational system.

Young people are often looked upon as highly skilled ICT users. It is very often taken for granted that they are able to – for instance – access, analyze, evaluate and communicate by help of both old and new media. This view of young people as a homogeneous cohort of skilled ICT-users has recently been put into question for at least two separate but interrelated reasons. Firstly, because it is too much of a simplification to treat all young people as a generational whole. Secondly, the empirical basis for such generalizations has in fact so far been very weak.

This paper aims at starting to compensate for at least the latter problem. It contributes with empirical data of actual skills in and use of media in general and new ICTs in particular among Swedish 13-years old children. The data has been collected through a survey among all children within the age group in a Swedish municipality. The response rate is at 93.8% (N=276).

The data reveal differentiated attitudes to and use patterns of ICT, during school as well as in everyday life. It also reveals that young people are very likely to use the Internet for information-seeking, but does not drop other people or analogue sources. A finding that does not correspond with their actual use of the Internet since it is rather seldom used for, at least, school related seeking.

The paper draws on a research project that combines quantitative and qualitative analyses in researching Swedish teenagers view on information technology as a tool in their search for knowledge and to develop their learning.

Background and Aim: Easy access to support for digital issues is a core concern for a lot of elderly users, and prospective users, of digital devices. At the same time, this is a challenge from at least two perspectives; (1) the diversified digital adoption among the elderly, and (2) the diversified digital devices and services offered and used. This study aims to describe and analyse the complexity in digital support for the elderly.

Method: Data was collected by 20 hours of open observations at a public support centre and analysed by thematic analyses of field notes.

Results: Preliminary results indicate from the first perspective that the complexity in the support is related to the overall life situation of the elderly. From the second perspective, the complexity in devices and services needed support for also reflect differences in life situations and socio-economical prerequisites.

Discussion and implications: The result highlights the need for warm experts in supports situation for elderly, experts with an understanding of different life situations and an ability to meet the support seekers at their digital literacy level. It also highlights the need for experts that accept and understand differences in digital accessibility and needs. The conclusion is that support functions for the elderly demands more than tech-savvy youngsters or professionals to facilitate digital inclusion and prevent digital drop-outs.

This article describes and discusses the digital and information skills of Swedish youth in relation to educational goalsand e-society participation, following pioneering research done by van Dijk, Buckingham, and Enochsson on thissubject. By the findings from a questionnaire and interviews, a diversified picture of information skills and attitudestoward being a part of the e-society emerge — a picture that supports the idea that the school could contribute to theestablishment of digital inequalities among the students.