In this research, we ask why and how some women start or grow a business after initiating divorce, while others will not. Grounded on an in-depth study of 24 women who experienced divorce in a patriarchal society, we develop a framework that identifies two pathways. The first pathway is followed by those women who felt trapped in their marriage and engaged in entrepreneurial activities as part of an overall process of self-discovery and self-development that enabled them to search for and find new sources of meanings, while the second pathway is followed by those women who felt discontent with their marriage, remarried but did not engage in entrepreneurship. Our emergent theoretical framework explains the importance of entrepreneurship to attain eudaimonic well-being following an adversity, thereby expanding the scope of entrepreneurship research.

A notable phenomenon in the Gulf States, and in Bahrain in particular, is the increasing number of female-led family ventures. This phenomenon is surprising because women are reported to face many legitimacy challenges when establishing a family business in an Arab society, in which social and economic decisions are male-dominated. Thus, we explore how female-led family ventures gain legitimacy in an Arab society. We employ a multiple case-study approach to investigate three longitudinal cases. We develop a process model of legitimacy formation for female-led family ventures. The legitimacy formation consists of three main phases: individual legitimacy, market validity and royal validity. Our model suggests that meritocracy carves out and informs most decisions and activities throughout the phases of the legitimacy formation. Additionally, we identify four different interconnecting forces (family/business spillover, large voices, bargaining power and influence on family norms) that, if present, accelerate the legitimacy formation. Our analysis also suggests that there are interactions and reciprocal relationships among the founders and the people with whom they interact that can both influence and be influenced by the process of legitimacy formation.

Emerging markets represent the new source of economic development. Yet, most innovation management research has centered only on newly developed economies such as Brazil, Chile. This manuscript focuses on exploring innovation activities on mid-range emerging markets i.e. Ecuador, Colombia. These types of markets are particularly relevant as have quickly moved from traditional emerging economies but are not considered yet newly developed economies. This paper focuses on the value creation activities at SMEs in the Ecuadorian market. Ecuador is categorized as a mid-range emerging economy as it has a high institutional development but a low infrastructure and market development. The findings of our paper reveal SMEs in mid-range emerging economies design strategies to create value for customers from emerged markets, use alliances to access the necessary material e.g. natural resources, products. Our study contributed to the growing literature on emerging markets and disentangles various strategies use by SMEs to succeed in developed economies.

Entrepreneurs are often influenced in their decision making by social context (Taylor & Thorpe,2004). Aiming to be successful, they need to learn how to act proactively in order to bring the product or service to market, how to close deals with suppliers and how to interact with potential customers (Bhave, 1994; Davidsson, 2004). This requires presence of a wide array of skills and knowledge andthus, aware of own deficiencies, entrepreneurs actively use social networks to learn from them. This article suggests that entrepreneurs are more likely to search inspiration and learn from their professional networks, where the cognitive distance is small.

This dissertation, comprised of the cover story and the four separate but interrelated articles, focuses on exploring the development of entrepreneurial competence. Building on the assumption that purposeful engagement in entrepreneurial action potentially leads to the acquisition of specific entrepreneurial competencies, this thesis investigates the mechanisms facilitating and enabling entrepreneurs’ acquisition of entrepreneurial expertise, and the consequences of this process. As such, it unpacks the entrepreneurial learning process. In particular, building on Bandura’s (1986) social  cognitive theory (SCT), this study explores the role of deeply held beliefs, goal orientation and social networks (role models) in shaping entrepreneurs’ behavior, specifically their ability to create new means-ends frameworks (cf. Sarasvathy, 2001).

The research included in this dissertation provides insight into the complexity of entrepreneurial competence development by connecting multiple theoretical perspectives, utilizing two different qualitative datasets situated in the context of gourmet restaurateurs and abductively building theory by developing explanations of the phenomenon of interest.

This is one of the first attempts to open the ‘black box’ of entrepreneurial learning by simultaneously incorporating the contextual variables and the cognitive properties and practices of entrepreneurs in exploring their learning process. By combining SCT with entrepreneurship theory, the thesis develops an integrating model of entrepreneurial competence development that explains the relation between the preferred learning mode, action-control beliefs, the perceived role identity and role models. The findings suggest that attainment of entrepreneurial competence, and ultimately expertise, is facilitated by changes in action-control beliefs; and by the development of entrepreneurial identity. The findings also suggest that the role model’s perceived function changes depending on the entrepreneur’s goal orientation. Thus, one of the most important implications of the study is the idea that entrepreneurs need to become agents of their own development.

Overall, this dissertation provides an explanation of the mechanisms of entrepreneurial competence development by suggesting that changing action-control beliefs and the formation of entrepreneurial identity are crucial in the development of entrepreneurial competence. In addition, access to role models and learning goal orientation facilitate this process.

Embedded in social context entrepreneurs seldom act alone (Granovetter, 1985). Exploiting opportunities requires entrepreneurs to act proactively bringing the product or service to market, closing deals with suppliers, interacting with potential customers and doing first sales (Davidsson, 2005; Bhave, 1994). This necessitates presence of different skills, wide array of knowledge and thus, aware of own deficiencies, entrepreneurs actively use their social networks, sometimes relying on their strong ties, sometimes favouring weak ties. This article suggests that not only spatial and relational distance but also cognitive distance between the ties will influence entrepreneur’s decision to whom and for what kind of help to turn when developing the business.

The importance of entrepreneurial self-efficacy for entrepreneurial action is well established. Extant research asserts that motivation of female entrepreneurs differs from male entrepreneurs, women are less confident than men, and, they show lower willingness to start a business. Despite these findings, the number of women entrepreneurs in general and mumpreneurs in particular is raising worldwide. To understand the phenomenon better, I explore two research questions: 1) why are women particularly prone to become entrepreneurs after becoming mothers? and 2) can motherhood be considered a springboard for women’s entrepreneurial action? To address these questions, I build on Bandura’s social learning theory and its assertion that mastery experience provides the strongest stimulus for action; and theorize that giving birth and raising a child will have a positive effect on woman’s confidence in general and entrepreneurial self-efficacy in particular. More specifically, by analyzing the type of skills and abilities that are required from parents when raising children, the type of problems encountered, and the type of experiences parents go through in this process, this paper illustrates their similarity to the entrepreneurship context. Consequently, this paper argues that motherhood can act as a springboard for women’s confidence to start and run a new venture. As such, there are two important implications of the argument developed. First, motherhood is a source of rich experiences and skills. Second, women entrepreneurs are not a homogeneous group and for policy makers to provide effective policy tools for the respective subgroups further clustering is required.

The concept of identity is of central importance to understanding how individuals make sense of their lives and how they enact environment to be able to achieve their goals. One of the basic assumptions underlying the extant research is the stability of the motives over time. Yet, life goals and motivations driving human action can change over time, and this has an impact on identity construction. Consequently, this study explores how entrepreneurs narrate these changes when constructing their entrepreneurial identities. We analyze the narratives of seven celebrity restaurateurs by examining how they construct and tell their stories over time. We identify three different types of narratives that are being used to explain the initial career decision: dream follower; serendipitous craftsman and forced opportunist. Interestingly, these narratives do not translate into three narratives of entrepreneurial identity.We add to current research on identity, illustrating how identity narratives change over time, moving from a focus on belonging to a focus on satisfying the need for distinctiveness. We suggest that there is a link between role identity and the need for belonging as well as between social identity and the need for uniqueness. More specifically, we found that while the early narratives focused on the role identity, establishing oneself as a chef, the later narratives are richer in elements of social identity, presenting more of a whole person rather than a person in role. Finally, we identify how achievement motivation influences the emphasis on either the need for belonging or need for distinctiveness.  

Principal Topic

Learning is often assumed to be inherent in the entrepreneurship process (Corbett, 2005). Sarasvathy (2001) argued that entrepreneurs are entrepreneurial because they act effectually. Entrepreneurial learning can thus be conceptualized as development of effectual logic. Entrepreneurs use both causation and effectuation logic; however, expert entrepreneurs are more likely to act effectually and/or adapt their dominant logic to the nature  of the task while novice entrepreneurs use predominantly causal  logic (Sarasvathy, 1998; Gustavsson, 2004). Perceived control motivates individuals to engage in action.

Individuals often reason from their identity to explain their behavior and in that sense the social identity offers a linkage between their identity and their action. In particular, it has been argued that individual exhibit either professional or managerial identity. How these preferences influence the self-regulatory processes and the prevailing logic has not been researched in entrepreneurship process so far. Thus, the purpose of the paper is to develop a conceptual framework illustrating the factors determining the process of development of effectual logic.

Method

This paper adopts agency perspective and social identity theory to develop a framework for understanding the development of effectual logic. Agency builds the fundamental element of personal control (Bandura, 2001), while social identity is defined and bounded by membership in social groups (Tajfel, 1974). Thus, by focusing  on both  the  individual elements inherent in the self-regulatory mechanism as well as on the social aspects and expectations of the chosen role a better understanding of the development process is created.

Results/Implications

By drawing specific attention to both the role perceived control and social role identity  I illustrate their importance to the entrepreneurship process and to individuals who manage this process. Insofar, the paper contributes to the entrepreneurship by extending understanding of effectual logic; as well as contributes to more contextualized view of learning process through linking both the individual and social facets. A new definition is proposed.

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to theorize on the mechanisms underlying the development of entrepreneurial expertise. While prior studies have identified differences between the behavior of novice and expert entrepreneurs, the mechanisms that cause these differences have not received sufficient attention.

Design/methodology/approach

This paper systematically reviews the extant literature on entrepreneurial expertise and builds the conceptual framework by employing an action-control belief framework to propose mechanisms underlying the development of expert behavior.

Findings

This paper argues that differences in behavior between novice and expert entrepreneurs stem from self-perceptions of their ability to act. More specifically, stronger action-control beliefs encourage entrepreneurs to create new interpretations of the world over time; develop and use strategies that allow them to rely on perceived control over means and ends, their perceived capacity, and their agency; and hence behave more like experts.

Practical implications

This paper suggests that strategy, capacity, and control beliefs are key in individuals’ decisions of whether to engage in entrepreneurial action and that expert entrepreneurs hold stronger beliefs than novices. Positive experiences, particularly those associated with deliberate practice, contribute to developing these beliefs and, more broadly, to entrepreneurial expertise.

Originality/value

This paper proposes that the mechanism of transformation from novice to expert behavior can be attributed to positive changes in deeply held beliefs about strategy (i.e. possible means-ends frameworks), capacity (i.e. access to means), and control (i.e. perceived efficacy). Each of the beliefs can develop separately from others and at different pace. In other words, this work explains why novice and expert entrepreneurs behave differently.

Although women entrepreneurs are particularly important in developing country and emerging economy contexts, their activities often are culturally constrained. Many of the constraints imposed are gender-based, that is, they are grounded in social norms and values that see women as subordinate to men and frequently result in women’s limited autonomy and lower access to education and other support mechanisms. To understand the cultural constraints that reduce the attractiveness of entrepreneurship as a career for women, we studied the cases of five educated Ethiopian women entrepreneurs. We identified three constraints: (1) ostracism by family and society for becoming an entrepreneur rather than finding a job; (2) objection to the type of business; and (3) censure for prioritizing business over the role of mother. By providing evidence that legitimization of entrepreneurship as a career is a contextualized process, we contribute to work on entrepreneurship generally and women’s entrepreneurship in particular.

In this chapter, the authors argue that entrepreneurship education (EE) as currently conceived, does little to eradicate gender inequality – rather, its focus on the individual and its neglect of structural impediments and measures tend to reinforce this inequality. The authors discuss why this happens and suggest ways forward. The authors believe the most positive action would be to employ legislation and public policy to change gendered structures and practices which would lead to changes in gendered norms. However, the relationship between norms and structures is mutual. Structural change can only be achieved if existing norms are questioned and this should be the first step toward changing discriminatory structures. The authors argue that in this context EE must include norm critical education. The authors provide some practical examples related to the context of EE.

Mumpreneurship understood as an entrepreneurial activity by women who are mothers is a growing phenomenon worldwide, yet its rise in Sweden is counterintuitive. To understand the circumstances of the participation of mothers in entrepreneurial activities, we use Career Kaleidoscope Model and adopt the narrative perspective and analyze 15 life-stories of Swedish mumpreneurs. Our data show that Swedish mumpreneurs frame their decision to enter entrepreneurship as a choice. The narratives portray them as agents – entrepreneurship results from a reevaluation of one’s own preferences, rather than an adaptation to the role of a mother. Because of the Swedish social welfare system mothers are not pushed into entrepreneurship, yet its design is consequential for their choice to enter into entrepreneurship.

Introductory paragraph: In Sweden, a growing number of mothers are starting a new venture when their children are young. This is surprising in a country where the welfare system with its family policies favors employees, not entrepreneurs. Because the Scandinavian welfare systems promote employment over entrepreneurship, we were were curious why so many mothers of young children still choose to launch ventures of their own.

Principal TopicExtant literature presents the combination of entrepreneurship and motherhood as a difficult and conflict-ridden one, requiring the adaptation of the business to the family situation. To investigate the relation, we build on the literatures on motherhood (Bueskens, 2018; Smyth, 2012) and women’s entrepreneurship and take the post-structuralist perspective of the self as discursively constructed (Bruner, 1990) and requiring subject positioning, and negotiating  (Czarniawska, 2013). 

MethodUsing qualitative interviews with 15 women entrepreneurs we explore how women position themselves simultaneously as good mothers and good entrepreneurs. We analyze the collected material via thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The context is Sweden, which is characterized by a strong gender equality ideology and by generous family policies including 18 months paid parental leave and affordable daycare from age 1.

ResultsWe find that women engage in doing and undoing motherhood. The undoing includes renegotiating their positions vis-à-vis societal norms and expectations that a woman must prioritize her child above all. The doing includes constructing a new discourse in which a happy mother is one who is able to pursue her passions and realize her dreams and in so doing models desirable attitudes and values in life for her child. We find that entrepreneurship can be a vehicle for crafting this identity.

We also find that mothers engage in undoing of the “mumpreneurship” discourse according to which women engage in entrepreneurship as a flexible form of part-time job that allows them to harmonize work and family responsibilities. Rather, these women engage in full-time, income-generating ventures motivated by a genuine desire to seize promising business opportunities. As such, our findings confront the prevailing misconception that businesses initiated by mothers are primarily geared toward convenience and exhibit lower economic ambition. These mothers are equally committed, driven, and dedicated to achieving success in their businesses as anyone else in the entrepreneurship landscape. Our findings have important policy implications in that they call for a reevaluation of the potential economic contribution of mother entrepreneurs.

This article explores why an increasing number of Swedish mothers are becoming entrepreneurs; this choice appears counterintuitive given the prevailing social welfare system prioritizes the rights of employed women. Using an interpretative stance, we analyzed the life stories of 18 Swedish mothers who created new ventures while caring for young children. The value of the time afforded by parental leave policies was identified as vital to the business creation process. Hence, we argue that time is a critical entrepreneurship-relevant resource; this is illustrated by the positive effect of the Swedish welfare system upon entrepreneurship entry and the timing of this decision.

The decision to become an entrepreneur may be one adaptation strategy individuals enact when they experience low work-related wellbeing. To date we know that the interplay between work-related identification and work-related subjective wellbeing affects individuals work-related choices. However, we possess less knowledge about the nature of this relationship. Extant studies have linked work-related subjective wellbeing (SWB) to identification, yet conceptualization of work-related identification has, like SWB, typically been considered from a static state perspective rather than a dynamic process perspective. Further, researcher imposed definitions have been used rather than seeking individuals self-definitions. Our study seeks to complement existing work by showing that identification is a dynamic process where we explore the relationship between multiple identifications and wellbeing. We empirically investigate the interplaying processes of identification and work-related wellbeing in an in-depth, person-centered, life story approach to the entrepreneurial endeavor. Our sample was purposively selected to include individuals with a strong professional identification while enhancing the variability of challenges faced over time in the entrepreneurial identification process. Our novel sample and life story methodology contribute to illustrating the dynamics of wellbeing over time with a constant identification and dis-identification in moving between aspired and experienced wellbeing; as well as highlighting that wellbeing becomes the antecedent, means and result while entrepreneurship is the believed mechanism to come closer to experienced wellbeing. 

Entrepreneurial judgment is crucial for entrepreneurial success. Extant literature argues that prior experience influences entrepreneurial decisions and the identification of attractive decision spaces for entrepreneurial activity is impacted by subjective risk perception and response to this risk. We posit that entrepreneurs develop different preferences for risk and prediction and their decisions reflect these preferences. To understand the strategic orientations of nascent entrepreneurs, using a sample of 262 nascent entrepreneurs, we study the impact of prior experience and the environmental context on the development of two strategic orientations of nascent entrepreneurs: risk orientation, i.e., the extent to which an individual perceives risk as downside loss or an upside opportunity and the prediction orientation, i.e., the extent to which an individual focuses on prediction. In doing so, our study contributes to a better understanding of the strategy formation process among nascent entrepreneurs.

Despite recognition of the centrality of emotions in entrepreneurship, little attention has been given to role of emotions in the development of entrepreneurial identity or enactment of entrepreneurial role. The contribution of the chapter is in the development of a dynamic model of the process leading to identification or dis-identification as an entrepreneur. In this chapter, we develop a dynamic model of the process leading to identification or dis-identification as an entrepreneur. We theorize that the driver behind an individual’s decision to become an entrepreneur, and their significant emotional experiences in the entrepreneurial role, influence the likelihood of following an identification or dis-identification cycle. Specifically, our framework proposes that positive emotions strengthen approach motivation and identification with the role, while negative ones foster avoidance motivation and dis-identification. We argue that contextual embeddedness can prompt transition between these two cycles. Our theorization provides new insights into methods of analyzing the role of emotions in the entrepreneurial process, more specifically in the process of entrepreneurial identity crafting. These insights also can be translated into studying the crafting of any professional identity.

Context and entrepreneurship are intertwined. In some contexts, the ability to craft a compelling regional identity story may become crucial for enacting entrepreneurial action. Building on an in-depth case study of the recent revival of a Spanish wine region, we analyze the interaction between regional context (i.e. regional identity) and entrepreneurial behavior. We find that to facilitate the creation of conducive conditions for entrepreneurial action, entrepreneurs craft regional identity stories. We show that stories both reflect and possess agency and propose that storying is a process of constructing new identity stories. Specifically, we identify three different types of narratives and observe that the local winepreneurs actively engage in storying—that is, contextualizing the story to their needs.

Rural gourmet restaurants are becoming a vital part of regional development. The growing interest in high quality regional food, and the changing perception of values inherent in food, created possibilities for many enterprising individuals. Through an in-depth case study of four Nordic rural gourmet restaurants, we explore the role of context in the process of business model development. By analyzing the changes in the business model, we find that the development of the business reflects the interaction with the environment. In particular, that the more professionally embedded entrepreneurs are more active in searching their networks for ideas that might help them improve their business and they act more on contingencies, while restaurateurs with lesser professional embeddedness have exhibited less change in their business models and did not engage in extending their networks. Thus, we argue that understanding the context of how experiences as the main arena for value creation are created and sold is important for understanding how entrepreneurs can develop their local story and local identity and become co-producers of regional development.

The concept of identity is of central importance to understanding how individuals make sense of their lives and how they enact environment to be able to achieve their goals. Identity is the internalized self-view that emerges from identification with particular roles and reflects the integration of experiences and events into coherent life trajectory. Identity construction reflects the adjustment towards emerging career aspirations in order to provide fit with the changing life goals. Building on the Optimal Distinctiveness Theory, we analyze narratives of celebrity restaurateurs by examining how they construct and tell their stories over time. The analysis shows that individuals construct their identity by balancing two needs – need for belonging and need for distinctiveness; that self-narratives help construct the desired identities stressing belonging early on and later on highlighting distinctiveness; and that the level of effort put into construction of desired identity depends on the salience and level of identification with the aspired identity. More specifically, we develop a model explaining how motivation and role models influence identity construction over time, i.e. how the source of motivation and the value of being similar or distinctive from others influence the effort put into the construction of identity. Finally, we also discuss how the celebrity aspect contributes to construction of identity.

The concept of identity construction is of central importance to understanding how individuals make sense of their lives and how they enact environment to be able to achieve their goals (Farmer, Yao, & Kung-Mcintyre, 2011). Most of the hitherto literature focuses on the process of construction and re- construction of identity (e.g. Ibarra, 1999) and on the tools individuals use to create and display their identity (e.g. Ibarra & Barbulescu, 2010). Identity construction can be thus conceptualized as the process of internalizing self-views emerging from identification with particular (social) roles and integrating lived experiences and events into coherent life trajectory. More specifically, entrepreneurial identity construction reflects the adjustment towards emerging aspirations of becoming an entrepreneur in order to provide fit with the changing life goals (Thornborrow & Brown, 2009). Hence, individuals’ action towards creating a desirable identity is guided by their motivation and willingness to identify with specific roles and/or people. Even if extant research offers explanation of the identity construction process and the tools in this process (i.e. stories), the understanding of the triggers of this process has not received enough attention.

As a consequence, to date very little is known about the mechanisms of how and why motivation and role models affect the process of identity formation. While research found that goal orientation influences internal motivation (Dweck, 1999), the role models act as external facilitators of motivation to act (Davidsson & Honig, 2003). Yet, no extant research has explored the mechanisms of identity construction adopting these perspectives simultaneously. Understanding how role models and goal orientation interact, and the effect their interaction can have on learning and formation of entrepreneurial identity is important because if entrepreneurs act based on who they are, who and what they know, then the adopted identity is likely to influence entrepreneurial action and its outcomes.

We use the Optimal Distinctiveness Theory (ODT), which suggests that individuals are driven simultaneously by the need for belonging and the need for distinctiveness; in order to create a congruent identity they engage in balancing these two needs. This theory is particularly well suited to exploration of the process of entrepreneurial identity construction as it suggests that individuals engage in work to retain the needed balance, and entrepreneurs more than other professions experience conflicts between these two needs (Haynie & Shepherd, 2011). We suggest that both internal goal orientation as well as role models influence whether individuals experience more the need for belonging or the need for distinctiveness; and subsequently the process how they construct their entrepreneurial identity. Furthermore, we suggest that the self-narratives help entrepreneurs construct the desired identities and that the level of effort put into construction of desired identity depends on the salience and level of identification with the identity. More specifically, we develop a model explaining antecedents, i.e. how the source of motivation, role models and the value of being similar or distinctive from others influence the effort put into the construction of identity.

We explore these relationships in the context of celebrity gourmet restaurateurs. This context is ideally positioned for our purpose, because the celebrity restaurateurs actively engage in narrating their stories and making sense of their success whether in interviews or through their own cookbooks. Additionally, the competition in this sector of the industry is skill based and relationships are characterized by close cognitive proximity expressed by shared norms, values and motives which increases the salience of the researched variables. Finally, gourmet restaurateurs’ dispositions contain characteristics of innovative entrepreneurs, through engaging in constant innovation, whether by developing new products or services or by introducing new revenue streams or production methods.

Adopting a narrative approach to the analysis of celebrity chefs’ stories and how they construct their identities over time is an excellent way to explore this process. Narratives are self-representations (Goffman, 1959). Individuals, and in particular entrepreneurs, are often motivated to explain their situation to a wider audience. For example, Boje (1991) argued that the content of stories and the meaning of the events may change over time reflecting individuals’ changing perceptions and worldviews. Moreover, Czarniawska (1997) states that individuals often enact stories to make their own actions legitimate and themselves accountable for the actions. Thus, narratives give meaning to the events, actions and objects. We analyze the narratives of the restaurateurs focusing on: orientation (setting and the character), abstract (summarizes the events or incidents of the story), complicating action (evaluative commentary on the events) and resolution/outcomes of the story or conflict) and compare the different elements over time.

Our analysis shows that framing goals as learning goals is likely to emphasize the need for distinctiveness and thus stress these aspects in the self-narratives, while framing goals as performance goals is likely to result in more need for belonging and thus emphasis on the aspects of the identity that offer similarity to others. Similarly, identification with role models facilitates emphasis on the similar aspects of the identity. Finally, we find that there is also strong relationship between the career stage entrepreneur is in and the dominant role of either need for belonging or need for distinctiveness.

In general, our findings are important for furthering our understanding of the identity construction process and its antecedents and outcomes. More specifically, we discuss linkages between entrepreneur’s identity construction and his or her search for legitimacy and reputation. We extend the discussion to the relation between self-identity and “Fremdidentitaet”, i.e. the identity displayed towards society. Finally, we elaborate how the celebrity aspect contributes to construction of identity. While we focus on construction of the entrepreneurial identity, we believe that this process is likely to be generalizable to identity construction is general.

The entrepreneurial learning literature remains underdeveloped and lacks a clear understanding of the learning process. Building on an in-depth case study of four Scandinavian gourmet restauranteurs, we argue that learning to act on entrepreneurial tasks involves opening-up and focusing processes. We propose a process model that specifies how changing perceptions of complexity and self-efficacy influence an individual?s preference for experimentation (opening up) and modelling (focusing) when acquiring new experience. Specifically, in situations perceived as complex, individuals will likely opt for modelling; however, individuals who feel highly self-efficacious will likely rely more on experimentation.

Using data on all businesses started by mothers of young children in Sweden between 2000 and 2014, we investigate what factors are the most important drivers of entrepreneurship among mothers. We find that being unemployed or being an immigrant are important drivers of entrepreneurship among mothers. However, our findings show that the most important and primary determinant of entrepreneurship by mothers in Sweden is the amount of paternity leave taken by their partners. These findings suggest that in institutional contexts such as Sweden gender inequality is not a persistent feature of most households and that women can make career choices by negotiating with their partners who will make use of the parental benefits offered by the government.

Using data on all businesses started by mothers of young children in Sweden between 2000 and 2014, we explore which factors are associated with entrepreneurship among mothers. We find that being unemployed or being an immigrant is positively associated with business start-up by mothers; however, our findings show that what matters more is the paternity leave taken by the mothers’ partners. These findings suggest that in institutional contexts such as Sweden, gender inequality is not a persistent feature of most households and that women can make career choices by negotiating with their partners who will make use of the parental benefits offered by the government.