Throughout the middle decades of the 20th Century Indigenous people were the target of efforts to assist in economic development. In large part these externally developed, modernisation based efforts failed. In response, a second wave of Indigenous development has emerged; one in which Indigenous peoples are striving to rebuild their 'nations' and improve their lot through economic development 'on their own terms'. Key to this approach is the pursuit by Indigenous people of the recognition of their rights to their traditional lands and resources. This paper examines the emergence of this second wave of Indigenous development in Canada.

We exploit information on ownership, management and kinship to study the representation of women in top management teams in Swedish family and non-family firms among domiciled limited liability firms over the years 2004 to 2010. The share of female top managers is analysed across listed and non-listed firms as well as across industries. We then estimate the likelihood that a woman is elected into the top management team in family and non-family firms using a probit regression model where we control for firm- A nd individual-level characteristics, including the gender distribution of the firm and kinship relations to existing board members and firm owners. We find that non-listed family firms are more likely to appoint female top managers, whereas we find no differences among listed firms. Moreover, we find that the gender composition and kinship structures of firms influence the appointment of female top managers.

This article focuses on South Africa, the home country for several ethnic groups. In this article ethnic entrepreneurship refers to people who share a common national background with some shared culture and who perceive themselves, and are perceived by others as separate (Waldinger et al., 1990; Yinger, 1998). The purpose is to illustrate how ethnicity driven laws and directives formed by a government that has "bought into" the Western discourse of entrepreneurship and a traditional view on ethnic entrepreneurship create lock-in effects on the individual as well as on the societal levels. Contrasting these views with ethnic groups as social organizations and the three perspectives of culture as integration, as differentiation, and as fragmentation we fulfill our purpose. The South African context is introduced to the reader and the paper ends with a discussion where lock-in effects of ethnic entrepreneurship are brought up: institutional factors, loss of knowledge; a subcultural exchange, a transfer of the Western discourse of entrepreneurship and the lack of a Barthian change agent representing the fragmentation perspective.

There is still a gender gap in entrepreneurship, with only 30% of all business founders being women. One important question in this regard concerns how female entrepreneurs learn and acquire business-relevant knowledge. Individual learning processes are affected by individual sense making and cognitions, implying that amongst the other factors at the individual and environmental levels, gender is a factor influencing entrepreneurial learning. However, a gender perspective has been neglected in recent research on entrepreneurial learning and opportunity recognition. The paper concentrates on conceptually and empirically introducing this gender perspective. We explore the main influences on the entrepreneurial learning of female entrepreneurs and the determinants and triggers that impact female learning. Regarding the implications for entrepreneurship research, we hope to contribute to the understanding of what constitutes the specificities of female entrepreneurship in the frame of entrepreneurial learning and opportunity recognition.

This paper conducts an inductive case study to build a theory on the role of family in both the host and home countries in immigrant entrepreneurs' attempts at creating entrepreneurial opportunities. We used the perspectives of the opportunity creation process and family social capital. We relied on data collected from four cases of immigrant entrepreneurs from Lebanon, Syria, Cameroon and Mexico who have established businesses in Sweden. The paper identified three sources of family social capital: family duties, family trust and family support as being relevant for creating opportunities. While family duties triggered the process of forming an entrepreneurial idea, this process was advanced by the existence of family trust. Family support was then the building block for launching an entrepreneurial idea. By identifying these three sources of family social capital, we show that families in the host and home countries contribute to immigrant entrepreneurs' opportunity creation.

In this paper, we outline how the divorce of the main owner-manager of a family-owned SME impacts the family business system. Divorce not only represents a pronounced family failure, but it can also be a highly stressful condition for the family members involved. To date, the impact of divorce on family businesses remains understudied, despite rates of divorce as high as 50% in some countries. Drawing on almost a decade of experience with engaged scholarship at the interface between divorce and family businesses, we selected four typical case studies to illustrate different coping strategies and show how divorce can change the strategic outlook of the family business system in SMEs by altering the commitment of the owner family to maintain the business in the family as well as ensuring the business continuation per se. Moreover, we exemplify how legal ownership regulations can shape family businesses strategic scope after divorce by impacting the financial situation. We integrate these findings into a model of family business system adaptation.

In general, all inventions are patented. However, there are numerous innovative activities that do not come under the coverage of patent protection even though patenting an innovation in different contexts remains vital. This paper analyses patent propensity as an outcome of innovative activities of regional SMEs. To achieve this, it does a robust regression analysis to estimate models to test five research hypotheses related to patent propensity using 263 firms participating in collaborative R&D with universities located in the Gwangju region in Korea. The empirical results show that a CEO's academic qualifications are positively related to propensity to patent. The findings also show that a CEO's intention to pursue new knowledge through open innovations is more relevant for patent propensity than public incentive policy instruments for making SMEs innovative by adapting innovation manuals, including the number of patents.

Increasingly, celebrities appear not only as endorsers for products but are apparently involved in entrepreneurial roles—as initiators, part owners and/or in managerial capacities—in the ventures that market the products they promote. We call this phenomenon Celebrity Entrepreneurship. Whether or not this type of involvement on the part of the celebrity is original and genuine, it may be suspected that celebrity entrepreneurs are more effective communicators than typical celebrity endorsers. This research hypothesizes that such is the case. Further, we hypothesize that this is because celebrity entrepreneurship leads to higher perceptions of a source’s Involvement—an endorser quality hitherto neglected in the marketing communication literature—which in turn affects traditional outcome variables such as Aad (Attitude toward the ad) and Abr (Attitude towards the brand). Based on two experiments using subjects from the relevant product target group (n=88 and n=77) we tested their reactions to advertisements containing the celebrity Cameron Diaz after exposure to one of three experimental conditions: entrepreneur; mere endorser, and no information (control). The results confirm that a) involvement can successfully be operationalized as distinct from variables previously shown to influence communicator effectiveness (trustworthiness, attractiveness and expertise), b) involvement has a positive effect on Aad and Abr over and above the traditional predictors and control variables, and c) the celebrity entrepreneur condition in the experimental manipulation leads to increased perceived involvement.

This article asks whether entrepreneurship education have the same impact on women and men with regard to perceptions of business skills, career preferences and belief in local business opportunities. We examine the company programme (CP), a programme taught to 250,000 secondary school pupils in 37 European countries. The data includes interviews with 1,187 24 to 25 years old in Norway, and half of the sample had formerly participated in CP. Controlling for competing explanations, CP has a positive impact on women's perception of business skills, but no impact on male's perceptions of business skills. CP has a positive impact on men's preference for self-employment, but no impact on women's career preference. Finally, CP had no impact on belief in local business opportunities. Females are underrepresented vis-à-vis males on all dimensions investigated whether they have participated in CP or not. CP ought to be adjusted to have an even stronger influence on women. 

The purpose of this article is to examine the wider societal outcomes of entrepreneurs' networking in ethnically divided post-conflict societies. Using network theory to explain relational dynamics between business, social and personal relationships, we postulate that entrepreneurs' interactions generate connections and paths across ethnically diverse social networks, thus facilitating social relations between ethnic groups. The survey was conducted with 130 entrepreneurs in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo and North Macedonia. The findings demonstrate that entrepreneurs are driven to increase profit and networks when cooperating with diverse ethnic groups. While spreading their business connections with other ethnic groups, they at the same time form connections between ethnic communities. Entrepreneurs alleviate ethnic cleavages and improve relations between ethnic groups. This article contributes to the recognition of the capacity of economic ties to facilitate cooperative patterns and rebuild impaired ethnic relations in ethnically divided post-conflict societies.

The immigrant entrepreneurs limited financing choices, and the various barriers preventing their access to the necessary financing in host countries have been extensively covered by the immigrant entrepreneurship literature. However, little is known about how immigrant family businesses (IFBs), at their startup level, manage to overcome these barriers and survive in host countries. Thus, this paper introduces the concept of financial ambidexterity of IFBs as the behavioral ability that some IFB owners develop to flexibly explore and exploit financing opportunities in both coethnic and mainstream contexts in host countries. In doing so, the paper draws on the complementary role of boundary work and behavioral complexity in determining the IFBs financial ambidexterity. As such, the paper contributes to the literature on entrepreneurial finance, and to the intersection between family business and immigrant entrepreneurship literature by introducing a mechanism that enables IFBs to overcome financing barriers in host countries.

Understanding financial strategies and patterns of new firms is crucial to the theoretical unravelling of the entrepreneurial process as well as to the elaboration of appropriate support programs from practitioner and policymaker. The aim of this paper is to investigate whether a pecking order theory underlies the financing strategies of new technology-based firms (NTBFs). From the analysis of previous literature on the subject, controversial results emerge: while some authors have confirmed a traditional pecking order theory for NTBFs, others, on grounds of NTBFs major financial constraints derived from higher information asymmetry, have proposed a revised pecking order, where access to equity (in particular private equity) occurs prior to debt. This research has been carried out applying an approach based on estimation ofinternal financial gap (Cosh et al., ECOJ 119:71494-1533, 2009) using data from the Kauffman Firm Survey. Additionally, we extend the pecking orderprediction by examining the effect of human capital as determinants for financing decisions, given its crucial role in shaping entrepreneurial dynamics of NTBFs. Our results support the existence of a revised pecking order in the case of NTBFs; moreover entrepreneur’s age and experience play a role in clarifying financial priorities of NTBFs.

Indigenous populations throughout the world suffer from chronic poverty, lower education levels, and poor health. The 'second wave' of indigenous development, after direct economic assistance from outside, lies in indigenous efforts to rebuild their 'nations' and improve their lot through entrepreneurial enterprise. This paper suggests that there is a distinguishable kind of activity appropriately called 'indigenous entrepreneurship'. We begin by defining the indigenous population and noting some general facts about their numbers and distribution. In an effort to discern the potential for development on indigenous peoples' own terms, we then explore three frameworks for understanding efforts at development, including indigenous development: modernisation theory, dependency theory and (at somewhat greater length) regulation theory. After distinguishing 'indigenous' from 'ethnic' entrepreneurship, we conclude by identifying a number of lead questions that present themselves at the outset of an enquiry into the nature of indigenous entrepreneurship.

Ethnic minority entrepreneurship operates in increasingly complex and ambiguous environments. Thus there is the need for entrepreneurship educators to prepare students to handle ambiguity and to develop a more comprehensive, contextualised and individualised understanding of ethnic minority entrepreneurship. In this paper, we present parables as a pedagogical tool to facilitate an understanding of ethnic minority entrepreneurship through the embracing and tackling of ambiguity by students. This is done through student interviews conducted with immigrant entrepreneurs in Sweden, followed by the construction of parables based on the interviews. The liberatory type of pedagogy where the student is the storyteller highlights multiple layers of meaning, including power, hegemony and exploitation in the interpretation and teaching about ethnic minority entrepreneurship. Such parable pedagogy encourages entrepreneurship educators to give more emphasis to ethnic minority entrepreneurship in the content and design of their curriculum.

This paper examines how the institutional role of entrepreneurship educators influences how they span boundaries and engage students and communities. We examine boundary-spanning behaviours based on four types of orientations among individuals involved in higher education - technical-practical, socio-emotional, community and organizational. We used survey data to identify how entrepreneurship educators at higher education institutions engaged stakeholders before the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. Findings suggest that the institutional role appears to correlate with boundary-spanning orientation. Faculty reported involvement in boundary-spanning and engagement activities, albeit to significantly lower degrees than other participants involved in entrepreneurship education and administration. This paper summarizes the results of university engagement and the roles that had emerged in entrepreneurship education just before the COVID-19 pandemic. We propose a model for 21st-century engagement and document entrepreneurship education roles evolving in concert with the needs of the entrepreneurial ecosystem.