Energy security as a dominant factor in international stability is of great importance for major economies. The global energy market with its current level of supply and demand relies on energy sources in the Middle East, Caucasus, Central Asia and Russia. After the Fukushima disaster nuclear powers in Europe view renewable energy sources as a serious alternative. Europe’s energy vulnerability has deteriorated due to the Russia-Ukraine conflict. However, renewable energy sources are not large enough to replace nuclear power completely. This trend will continue with climbing demand especially in the natural gas sector as clean energy. In this research, Caucasus and Iran are considered the main sources and routes for energy transmission to the global market, including Europe. Caucasus plays a key role in bridging Europe and Asia. Also, Iran is an alternative for energy transmission to Europe after lifted sanctions. As part of the European active supply diversification policy Iran has capacity to reduce Europe’s energy dependency on Russia. However, changes in US new administration America First Policy is harmful for the EUs energy security. Caucasus aims to catch a large share of the European energy market since the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline has started operations and Iran is also trying to expand its market to become a sustainable source of energy for major consumers. Therefore, Iran and Caucasus are considered reliable energy suppliers for Europe. In this regard, we analyze the best motivation for changing the direction new suppliers’ energy policies towards Europe and suggest alternative solutions to compete with rival countries in order to enhance energy security.

In the pursuit of responding to climate change and reducing Greenhouse Gases (GHG) emissions caused by human activities, restrictions and regulations took place by international policymakers to limit the harmful effect on the environment. Thus, Energy-intensive industries are experiencing an unprecedented challenge due to more strict rules and limitations by governments in the EU and Sweden on unsustainable practices. 

The purpose of the study is to highlight the barriers and benefits of investing in Energy Efficiency Technologies (EETs) such as Waste Heat Recovery (WHR) and Electric Energy Storage Systems (EESS) in a Swedish foundry firm. Further conduct a feasibility study of the selected technologies in the foundry energy system to understand to which extent improvements in Energy Efficiency (EE), cost reduction and GHG emissions take place. Further, contribute to the literature of Energy Management (EnM) by presenting a framework for decision-makers in energy-intensive industries to enable the implementation of EETs. 

A single case study took place to generate and relate important theories in managerial practices. Semi-structured and structured interviews were conducted with experts involved in the foundry industry, EETs, and energy consultants. Moreover, documents were also provided to extract data. The qualitative data analysis was conducted using the framework analysis method while the quantitative analysis was performed using modeling through RETScreen software. 

The results indicate that the main barriers to EETs are financial aspects, while environmental aspects were perceived as the most significant benefits. Furthermore, the feasibility study conducted proved a reduction of 4% in energy consumption, a reduction of 3% in annual GHG emissions, and a payback period of 5 years which was unfavorable for the investigated foundry. Further, the authors recommended an EnM framework based on EETs to ease their integration.

Solar photovoltaics (PV) are susceptible to environmental and operational stresses due to their operation in an open atmosphere. Early detection and treatment of stress prevents hotspots and the total failure of solar panels. In response, the literature has proposed several approaches, each with its own limitations, such as high processing system requirements, large amounts of memory, long execution times, fewer types of faults diagnosed, failure to extract relevant features, and so on. Therefore, this research proposes a fast framework with the least memory and computing system requirements for the six different faults of a solar panel. Infrared thermographs from solar panels are fed into intense and architecturally complex deep convolutional networks capable of differentiating one million images into 1000 classes. Features without backpropagation are calculated to reduce execution time. Afterward, deep features are fed to shallow classifiers due to their fast training time. The proposed approach trains the shallow classifier in approximately 13 s with 95.5% testing accuracy. The approach is validated by manually extracting thermograph features and through the transfer of learned deep neural network approaches in terms of accuracy and speed. The proposed method is also compared with other existing methods.

Sun, a free source of energy, has moved the world to consider photovoltaic (PV) system as green renewable energy since fossil fuel power plant accounts for a significant share of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions across the globe. The output of the PV system is limited to many factors; however, the acute accuracy of orientation (tilt and azimuth) angles exposes the PV surfaces to high doses of solar radiations. Which increases the PV system output; in turn GHG mitigation potential. This paper draws a relationship between accuracy of orientation angles impact on PV system's GHG mitigation potential. For reference, the accuracy of orientation angles in Pakistan's Capital increases the annual average daily solar radiations level from 4.02 (horizontal surface) to 4.39 (-33.6 tilt and 180 azimuth) kWh/m2/d. Accuracy of orientation angles on multiple end energy users (equivalent to 1 MW) PV system has potential to avoid additional 65.1 and 22.6 tonnes of CO2 equivalent and production of 158987.13 and 55,120.1 kW h compared with a same size PV system with horizontal surface and 33.6 tilt angle (equivalent to location's latitude), respectively. PV system orientation angles accuracy has the potential to avoid tonnes of GHG emissions without any investment, operation and maintenance costs.

Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems are widely used to mitigate greenhouse gases (GHG), due to their green renewable nature. However, environmental factors such as bird drops, shade, pollution, etc., accommodation on PV panels surface reduce photons transmission to PV cells, which results in lower energy yield and GHG mitigation potential of PV system. In this study, the PV system’s energy and GHG mitigation potential loss is investigated under environmental stresses. Defects/hotspots caused by the environment on PV panel surface have unknown occurrence frequency, time duration, and intensity and are highly variable from location to location. Therefore, different concentrations of defects are induced in a healthy 12 kWp PV system. Healthy PV system has the potential to avoid the burning of 3427.65 L of gasoline by 16,157.9 kWh green energy production per annum. However, in 1% and 20% defective systems, green energy potential reduces to 15,974.3 and 12,485.6 kWh per annum, respectively. It is equivalent to lesser evasion burning of 3388.70, and 2648.64 L of gasoline, respectively. A timely solution to defective panels can prevent losses in the PV system to ensure optimal performance.

End energy user is dependent on fossil fuel-based main-grid and contributes toward greenhouse gasses (GHG) emissions. Changing its energy source will change the dynamics of the power plant, contribution towards GHG production. This case study aims to highlight the minute but positive role of a single end energy user, invisible to the main grid in GHG mitigations through photovoltaic energy source, selected among Pakistan’s top 10 most populous cities as per census 2017. Quetta is a selected city in Pakistan as the best fit location based on annual average daily solar radiations (AADSR) data retrieved from National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) meteorological data. Helioscope software is used to select −15◦ tilt and 180◦ azimuthal angles, which further increased Quetta’s AADSR value from 5.54 kWh/m2 /d to 5.93 kWh/m2 /d. For research significance, a realistic approach is undertaken by proper selection of solar panel type based on Quetta’s annual average temperature, load categorization, user selection and inputs from a solar energy expert. Finally, initial cost, investment and GHG mitigation analysis are carried out in RETScreen Expert software, which validates the minute but the prominent role of a single, end energy user by mitigating 122 tons of CO₂ in 25-year project life span. Further, the proposed project favors end-user financially by recovering its $4501 initial cost in less than four years by effectively meeting its energy demand and saving $1195 per annum. 

Green energy by PV systems reduces the dependence on fossil fuel‐based power plants. Maximizing green energy to meet the demand reduces the burden on conventional power plants, hence lesser burning and greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions. For this purpose, this study draws a relationship between tracking schemes of the PV systems to GHG mitigation potential. The best fit location for detailed analyses is selected among the 15 most populous cities of Australia. The solar radiation potential is increased to 7.78 kWh/m2/d through dual axes tracking compared to 7.54, 6.82, 5.94, 5.73 kWh/m2/d through the one axis, azimuth based, fixed‐tilted, and fixed‐horizontal surface schemes, respectively. Through the dual axes tracking scheme, a 1MW PV system per annum energy output avoids the burning of 796,065.3 L of gasoline, 4308.7 barrels of crude oil which is equal to the mitigation of 1852.7 tCo2 equivalent GHGs. Concisely, the PV system, through its green energy out-put, can avoid the release of greenhouse gases from fossil‐fuel plants to tackle climate change more effectively. 

Background: Households, as end energy users, consume grid electricity to meet their energy demands. However, grids across the globe for energy production are majorly based on fossil fuel technology and make the highest contributions to global warming and climate change due to greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions. This generic study aims to investigate the minute role of a single-end energy consumer in GHG mitigation by switching to a rooftop PV system to meet his energy demands and trading surplus energy to the grid through its techno-economic analysis.

Method: For the study impact, NASA Meteorological Data are used to select an ideal single energy user equipped with a 10-kW PV system based on annual average daily solar radiation and ambient temperature through MATLAB/Simulink, for 11 populous cities in Pakistan. Helioscope software is used to select tilt and azimuthal angles to maximize the solar radiation intercept. Afterward, RETScreen software is used for cost, financial and GHG analysis.

Result and conclusion: A single end energy user equipped with a 10-kW PV system switched to a green energy source from a fossil fuel-based grid has the potential to avoid the burning of 3570.6 L of gasoline by producing 16,832 kWh of green energy per annum, while financially recovering the 10-kW PV system’s 7337$ grid-tied investment in 5 years (equity) and in 9 years (equity) in a 9077$ stand-alone system over its 25-year life. This approach provides relief to end energy users from high priced grid electricity through environmental friendliness by mitigating 8.3 tons of CO2 equivalent emissions per annum from energy production, while providing relief to the main grid by grid stabilization through peak shaving, in the broad sense.

The photovoltaic (PV) systems' inherent ability to transform solar light directly into electrical energy has contributed to their increasing popularity. However, malfunctions can reduce system dependability. Therefore, rapid hotspot identification is critical for efficient, dependable, and risk-free PV operation. This work presents a method for determining the most optimal hybrid features using the infrared (IR) images of PV panels for hotspot and fault detection. The information at the global (texture, HoG, and color histograms) and local (local binary pattern, SURF, and KAZE) levels were extracted from the IR images of PV panels using a uniform window size of 8 x 8. A binary improved Harris hawks optimization (b-IHHO) optimal feature selection strategy was used to get the optimal feature subset for model training using PV IR images. The IR images of PV were acquired to test the presented framework. The findings suggested that the proposed framework can classify the IR images of solar panels with an accuracy of 98.41% with lesser feature vector size into three classes (normal, hotspot, and defective). Furthermore, the findings were also compared with the latest literature. The presented technique plays a vital role in carbon-free cities and is simple to adopt for PV system inspection.

Abstract

Background: The global shift towards renewable energy is critical for combating climate change and achieving sustainability. This transition is significantly influenced by regulatory frameworks, which vary across different sectors and regions. Turkey's tourism sector, a substantial consumer of energy, presents a unique context for examining the impacts of renewable energy regulations.

Purpose: This study explores the implications of recent renewable energy regulatory changes in Turkey on the tourism sector. It aims to understand how these regulations influence the adoption and implementation of renewable energy solutions within tourism businesses, the economic impacts of these regulations, and the role of societal norms and stakeholder expectations in driving these changes. 

Method: Employing a qualitative case study approach, this research integrates semi-structured and unstructured interviews, field observations, and document analysis to gather detailed insights. The study focuses on "Summer Tour," a prominent Turkish tourism agency, examining the company’s strategies and responses to regulatory changes through the lens of Institutional Theory.

Conclusion: The findings reveal that regulatory changes, particularly the amendments allowing unlicensed energy production outside consumption areas, have significantly facilitated renewable energy adoption in the tourism sector. These changes have yielded substantial economic benefits, including cost savings and enhanced profitability. However, unintended consequences such as regulatory complexity and retroactive policy adjustments pose challenges. Additionally, societal norms and stakeholder expectations play a critical role in shaping organizational behavior towards sustainability. This study provides valuable insights for policymakers and businesses, highlighting the importance of adaptive strategies and comprehensive regulatory frameworks in promoting renewable energy adoption.

More sustainable generation and use of electricity are being achieved through a growing contribution from solar and wind power. These are intermittent sources with output evolving according to broad seasonal and diurnal patterns on which superimpose rather unpredictable changes due to weather, such as an appearance of cloud layers attenuating the amount of irradiance received by the surface. The integration of the solar production and the parameters that influence it creates a complex system where on continuous basis decisions need to be made on whether to store or forfeit excess solar electricity or whether to call on hydrocarbon-powered stations. All of this is to satisfy demand which is itself constantly changing with broad seasonal and diurnal trends. Thus, optimal decisions depend on a multitude of variables, from technical parameters of the devices to weather-related variables to predict demand on a timescale sufficient to adjust supply and decide on the best mix of technologies. Machine learning techniques are promising for the integration of renewable energies into the grid. Thus, this chapter proposes an efficient solution for grid management and control of the distribution of electrical energy while encouraging the integration of renewable energy. In particular, the proposed solution aims to be able to predict the production of intermittent sources such as the sun in our case so that its integration is more efficient. So, it will ensure that renewable and non-renewable sources are complementary at all times, offering then the best possible storage and production tools. All this is to ensure instantaneous energy balance.

Introduction: The master thesis investigates a solar cell facility over a year. A study of Levelized cost of storage (LCOS) is being used as a guideline for the economical investment revenue about battery storage as a complement to solar panels.

Method: The qualitative methods that have been utilized for this thesis are multiple document assessments as well as literature studies and calculations. The literature analysis was applied to answer all inquiries. The document assessments have been used to answer the first and second question. The calculations were used to answer the first and the third question. 

Results: The study shows that the true effect capacity of the battery, discharge time, amount of life cycles per year inclusive to the cost of electricity becomes a significant factor for the expenses in the administration. The study also shows that the usage of battery storage is currently unprofitable based on modern-day solar cell strategy. 

Analysis: The analysis uses a qualitative approach. Document analysis and the calculations are presented in a form of charts, diagrams, and graphs to facilitate for the reader. The literature inquiry has been an excellent way to navigate through the area with the information available. 

Discussion: The result discussion emphasizes both pros and cons with the battery storage for a total cost of 2 600 000 SEK with the help of document analysis results as well as previous literature concerning battery storage and LCOS. Expected price reductions in battery costs and increased electricity prices will be decisive factors for a future investment. Methods that have been carefully selected offer an insight into the usage of the battery. 

Window blinds have a substantial role in shaping the energy consumption and improving thermal comfort and visual comfort. However, difficulties in selecting a window blind remain, due to existence of potential conflicts between visual, thermal, energy and life cycle cost. To overcome this problem, this study evaluates the performance of interior blinds, including venetian with slat of 0° and 45°, roller and double-pleated blinds with respect to visual, thermal, energy and life cycle cost. Later, the Analytical hierarchy process (AHP) is used for selecting the best blind based on trade-off among the visual, thermal, energy and life cycle cost. In using AHP, visual comfort is determined as most important objective with a weight of 52%. The results show that venetian blind (VB) with slat of 0° drawn 100% is the trade-off blind. Accomplishing the sensitivity analysis on blinds’ global weight shows that VB with slat of 0° drawn 100% remains the trade-off blind until the weight of energy and life cycle cost is below 37% and 57%, respectively, and the weight of visual comfort is above 4%. However, changing thermal comfort weight has no impact on ranking of the blinds. This study shows the capability of AHP in managing the conflicts.

Digitizing analog meters into the IoT where meters can be read remotely is a solution which is both environmentally and economically beneficial. This study investigate show energy critical systems can gain a longer lifespan by optimizing their energy consumption. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the energy consumption of energy critical systems with different wireless data transfer protocols. This is conducted with experiments and observations.The data was collected by setting up two testbeds where the wireless transmission interfaces WiFi and BLE were used to send data between two microcomputers. These testbeds measured the energy consumption when altering with the variables of the two transmission protocols.The result shows that the internal protocols of WiFi were greatly affected by the changes made in the variables compared to BLE during the experiments. The results also show that when calibrating the different variables, the energy consumption is reduced by up around 52%. Furthermore, the result indicates that there is energy to saveif you optimize transmission power to a specific environment.In this study, BLE has little to no change to the energy consumption when changing the different variables. When investigating the internal protocols of WiFi, they are greatly affected by the different variables being changed. A lower transmission power can be more energy efficient but at the cost of shorter range and eventually a higher packet loss.

Active producer-consumers (prosumers) still number relatively few in most countries, excluding frontrunner countries such as Germany and the USA, where small-scale solar power generation by property-owners has made strong inroads. To unleash their potential for a transition to a more climate-neutral electric energy system, identifying the potential enablers and constraints for the proliferation of prosumption is crucial. Policy mixes have been identified as important enablers for industry transitions. We report a case comparing the similarities and differences among prosumer-related policies in five European countries: Finland, France, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland. We also introduce an empirical case study on how policies in these countries may influence consumer attitudes in favor of small-scale renewable energy production. We conclude the chapter by discussing the best practices and the mix of more precise policy instruments deployable for involving citizens in order to accelerate the electrification of the energy system.

Belysning är en väsentlig del i ett fungerande samhälle. Utveckling av belysning går framåt hela tiden, för att bli så användarvänligt som möjligt. Idag kan belysning förutsäga hur utrymmen används med hjälp av information från andra armaturer, så att området blir belyst även om brukaren rör sig precis på gränsen av det belysta området. Att få fram en energieffektiv belysning tillsammans med dagsljus, utan att ge avkall på den visuella komforten är en viktig fråga för beställare av belysning. Visuell komfort är dock mer komplicerat än energibesparing, eftersom det innebär fler faktorer och det gynnsamma resultatet är svårare att uppskatta. Visuell komfort, så som rumsuppfattning beskriver hur vi ser ett rums storlek och form. Något att ha i åtanke är också att rummet inte alltid uppfattas så som det är planerat och tänkt. Idag blir energibesparande styrsystem allt viktigare i kommersiella byggnader då det finns hög potential att minska energiförbrukningen. Utöver att spara energi kan smarta styrsystem också användas för att förbättra ljuskvalitet samt öka produktiviteten. Följande examensarbete undersöker hur smarta styrsystem kan påverka den visuella rumsuppfattningen i kontor, samt om energiförbrukningen förändras av styrsystem, kontra statisk belysning.

Undersökningen utgår från två frågeställningar. För att besvara den första frågeställningen som behandlar rumsuppfattning utgår arbetet från en kvantitativ ansats i form av en digital enkätundersökning. Undersökningen omfattar hur belysningen på kontor uppfattas av personal på olika företag som använder sig av smarta styrsystem, jämfört med de som använder statisk belysning. Enkätens syfte var att få reda på deltagarnas uppfattningar om belysningen på sitt kontor. Deltagarna fick svara utifrån sina egna uppfattningar och värderingar. Totalt svarade 37 personer på enkäten. Den andra frågeställningen som handlar om energiförbrukning, beräknas utifrån en armatur från Aura Light. Undersökningen går ut på att jämföra armaturens energiförbrukning då den är statisk och har 100% ljusflöde och sedan titta på energiförbrukningen när den är uppkopplad till ett styrsystem. Därefter jämförs resultaten.

De slutsatser som dras i studien kring resultatet av rumsuppfattningen påvisar att det förekom skillnader. Majoriteten av de som hade statisk belysning uppfattade rummet som allmänt och ljust, medan majoriteten med styrsystem uppfattade rummet som lugnt och trivsamt. Detta tyder på att styrsystem i viss mån kan ha en påverkan på hur människor uppfattar ett rums karaktär tillsammans med belysningen. Gällande resultatet kring energiförbrukningen med styrsystem kontra statisk belysning, visar det att det finns potential att spara energi vid byte av belysningssystem på kontor.

For online business markets with a large customer base, the use of market-platforms is leading to a rapid generation of a huge amount of data. Such businesses face challenges to satisfy their users. A quantitative research approach has been used to examine big data in online markets, but there is also a need for qualitative research in this area, so as to understand the relationship between big data, online markets. The present research presents an analysis of the various case study approaches that are employed by researchers in this area. We also analyze trends in case study techniques in this area. The research problem is taken on as a research case for the present study. The results of the study should contribute the implementation of big-data in online markets research.

För att minska energiförbrukningen i Sverige krävs att befintliga byggnaderen ergieffektiviseras. Det finns även befintliga lokaler i landet som är i behov av en sänkt energiförbrukning. Det sker ständigt initiativ kring arbete med energieffektivisering av framför allt bostadshus. När energiförbrukning ska sänkas i industrilokaler läggs fokus på att minska energiåtgången i de invändigaprocesserna men inte i det omgivande klimatskalet där transmissionen utgör en stor del av energiläckaget. Syftet med arbetet är att öka kunskapen om energieffektiva åtgärder vid renovering av klimatskal hos industrilokaler. Målet ä ratt ta fram olika lösningsförslag som reducerar energiläckaget vid renovering av befintliga industrilokaler anpassat till projektet Dalern. Projektet Dalern är en byggnad uppförd på Åland vid 1990 som används vid fallstudie av förbättrade tekniska lösningar.

I rapporten behandlas följande tre frågeställningar.

Vilka metoder finns för att energieffektivisera klimatskal hos industrilokaler?

Vilka alternativ är mest energieffektiva?

Vilka tekniska lösningar skulle fungera i projektet Dalern?

För att besvara dessa frågeställningar har en litteraturstudie över vanliga, energisparande renoveringsmetoder utförts. Dokumentstudier har genomförts av referensobjektet Dalerns ritningar. Studien har resulterat i en fallstudie där olika åtgärder beräknats för att se vilka potentialer det finns att energieffektivisera klimatskalet.

De resultat som framkommit av arbetet är att det finns många olika metoder att energieffektivisera framför allt husbyggnader. De åtgärder som ger en mest energieffektiv besparing är framför allt byte av fönster och dörrar samt tilläggsisolering av tak och väggar. I fallstudien har olika åtgärder beräknats med handberäkning och med hjälp av energiberäkningsprogrammet VIP-Energy. Byggnadsdelar, möten mellan byggnadsdelar och hela referensobjektets energianvändning har beräknats. Eftersom rapportens tyngdpunkt är energieffektivisering har värmeövergång, köldbryggor och specifik energianvändning beräknats med omsorg. Andra faktorer som tagits hänsyn till är fukt, lufftäthet och brand.

Uträkningen i energiberäkningsprogrammet har resulterat i att referensobjektets genomsnittliga värmeövergång kan minska med cirka 30 % vid användning av rätt åtgärder. Referensobjektets specifika energianvändning kan minskas med cirka 33% efter åtgärder som enbart berör klimatskalet.

For residential environments, energy-reducing strategies to cope with user activities and behaviour are currently limited mainly to the implementation of improved lighting technology. Non-residential environments have already been operating smart lighting systems for many years. These systems use advanced and integrated lighting technology, including an internet-based network for data communication. As user activities and behaviour in the residential sector significantly differ from the non-residential one; thus, a non-residential energy optimisation potential may not necessarily be achievable and directly translatable to the residential sector. Also, the architectural typological variety amongst residences may be larger than non-residences. In residential buildings, the effect of the composition of a household (domestic establishment) and user activities on smart lighting systems’ consumption and efficiency are not explicitly investigated before. In this light simulation study in Sweden, the electric lighting energy consumption for a two-room apartment was modelled for three different household scenarios using DIALux Evo and DIVA-for Rhino. The household scenarios were composed based on input by 12 existing Swedish households and incorporate residential occupancy variety. The study’s findings suggested that the appropriate use of smart lighting solutions, including optimised sensor applications, has the potential to save more than 50% of electric lighting energy consumption compared to non-smart systems. The study demonstrated promising simulation results specifically focussing on (smart) lighting application alternatives in the residential sector.

This paper investigated and compared how the energy consumption of a conventional and Smart Lighting System (SLS) in a simulated residential setting is affected by different households’ arrangements and occupancy pattern. An agent-based simulation model of a one-bedroom apartment in Sweden was chosen for comparison with different scenarios. The result shows that the number of residents within an apartment does not necessarily lead to higher energy consumption. Further findings indicate that, even though it has standby energy consumption, SLS is more energy efficient compared to the conventional lighting system. Additionally, energy consumption during weekends was considerably higher than during weekdays.

This research examines the attitude of the customers to acceptance and acceptance of impediments of electric vehicles (EVs) by contemplating the main aspects of sustainability, customer preference, and perceived threats in India. Through quantitative approach, the study examines the correlation of these factors in line with the buying behavior of customers in EVs. This research establishes a strong positive relationship between sustainability concerns, consumer attitudes, and intentions to buy EVs, suggesting that the environmentally conscious and those influenced by extraneous factors are likely to own EVs. However, other factors, which are perceptions of risks such as reliability and infrastructure hinder buying behavior. All of these suggestions are beneficial in offering implications to policymakers, automotive sector industries, and consumer education programs. Concerning sustainability, marketing strategies that follow consumers’ buying behavior and minimize perceived risks should be pursued to improve the uptake of EVs. The limitations of the study include targeting of urban customers and the use of correlation analysis. Further research can continue analyzing the advancements in technology, escalation of consumer disposition across the states, and long-term shifts in consumers’ perceptions.

Wireless technology is used daily across the globe. A very common wireless technology is Bluetooth. The Bluetooth technology exists everywhere, from cars to mobile phones and even kitchen appliances. Recently, Bluetooth Low Energy has added support for another physical layer, LE 2M PHY. This physical layer is supposed to be faster and more energy efficient than its predecessor, LE 1M PHY, with a decrease in range. Because of this new physical layer, Bluetooth Low Energy can now compete with Bluetooth Classic during data transmission, in both speed and energy efficiency. This thesis aims to find the breaking point where Bluetooth Low Energy becomes less energy efficient than Bluetooth Classic, in relation to bit rate speed and total amount of bytes sent. Before experiments were conducted, multiple iterations of an artifact had to be done to end up with an artifact that provides valid and reliable data. The experiments were then conducted by changing the bit rate speed and sending different amounts of bytes. The results from the experiments show that Bluetooth Classic is practically both faster and more energy efficient with its fastest modulation than Bluetooth Low Energy is with LE 2M PHY enabled, even though this should not be the case theoretically. Bluetooth Classic is overall more energy efficient than Bluetooth Low Energy and thus the conclusion of this study is that no breaking points between the two technologies exist.

To increase sustainability in future energy systems, both technical and social measures must be taken. Microgrid communities offer local balancing of supply and demand, while also integrating the community as an active part of the energy system. This study investigates two cases of microgrid communities; how they were realized and what wider effects they offered its communities and other stakeholders. The study shows that the microgrid collaboration between community and utility offers a new organizational division that can overcome the traditional locked-in position of the utility. This brings forward communities as system-active participants and a sustainably beneficial energy system for the future.

Purpose: The building stock in Sweden consists mainly of buildings built before 1977, when the building standard regarding energy balance was introduced. These buildings usually have low energy efficiency. The Swedish Parliament has set up goals that focus on decreasing the energy use in residential and commercial buildings with 50 % by the year 2050, compared with the level in 1990. This study aims to investigate how the energy efficiency of existing non-insulated brick buildings can be improved while taking into consideration historical preservation. These buildings, which make up our cultural heritage, have a large potential for reduction of energy use, environmental impact and heating costs. Therefore, they are an important part of achieving the environmental goals.

Method: The main method of this study was a case study in which collection of documents and interviews took place. The case study has been performed on a non-insulated brick building at Södra Munksjön, Jönköping. Information about the building was gathered through the document collection. Based on this information, a specific energy use has been calculated using an energy calculation program. Energy efficiency measures have been put into the program to understand which specific energy use that can be achieved. In the interviews, people active in the field determined if these measures can be implemented without distorting the cultural-historical value of the building.

Findings: The study shows how extensive the renovation and restoration of a noninsulated brick building has to be to meet the requirements of specific energy use according to Boverkets byggregler 21. The existing building has a specific energy use of 430 kWh/m2 and year. After adding insulation, renovation of windows and doors, replacement of ventilation and heating system this is equal to 79 kWh/m2 and year. Boverkets byggregler 21 has a requirement for new constructions of 80 kWh/m2 and year for premises in climatic zone III. Additionally, this study shows that these measures can be executed without distorting cultural-historical values of the building.

Implications: The study indicates a great potential of energy-savings in non-insulated brick buildings and that it can be done without distorting the cultural-historical values. The energy consumption for residential and commercial buildings can then be considerably reduced which creates an opportunity to fulfil environmental goals. Boverket is recommended to review which requirements of specific energy use that should be set up at reconstruction of cultural-historical buildings. Fundamentally, it is the same requirements that are applied at reconstructions as at new constructions. However, several exemptions allow an adaption of the requirement levels to ensure the cultural-historical value. The study indicates that these exemptions are not required.

Limitations: Since all buildings are unique, the result in this study cannot directly be generalised to other buildings. Instead, this study can be used as reference material indicating which measures that have a significant impact on the energy use. Interpreting the interviews, it is possible to determine whether the planned measures can be executed without distorting the cultural-historical value of the building.

Keywords: Cultural-historical valuable buildings, distortion, energy efficiency, noninsulated brick buildings, specific energy use.