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Quantification of dendritic austenite after interrupted solidification in a hypoeutectic lamellar graphite iron
Jönköping University, School of Engineering, JTH. Research area Materials and manufacturing – Casting.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-6938-037X
Jönköping University, School of Engineering, JTH. Research area Materials and manufacturing – Casting.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-6339-4292
Jönköping University, School of Engineering, JTH. Research area Materials and manufacturing – Casting.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-3024-9005
2016 (English)In: Metallography, Microstructure, and Analysis, ISSN 2192-9270, Vol. 5, no 1, p. 28-42Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

This paper presents an unconventional etching technique to reveal the microstructure in a hypoeutectic lamellar graphite iron that has been quenched after isothermal heat treatment in the proeutectic semi-solid temperature region. A technique for quantifying the dendrite microstructure using the aforementioned etching technique involving a combination of a raster graphics editor and an image analysis software is outlined. The agreement between this quantification technique with regard to volume fraction and surface area per unit volume of the dendritic austenite and corresponding point counting and line intercept techniques is analyzed. The etching technique was found useful but sporadic tinting of martensite was problematic. Some measurements showed significant systematic disagreement which correlated with the coarseness of the measured dendrites. Most systematic disagreement is attributed to difficulties in defining the dendrite boundary in the analogues and much of the random disagreement to easily identified discrepancies between the analogue and the micrograph.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
New York: Springer, 2016. Vol. 5, no 1, p. 28-42
Keywords [en]
Cast iron, Quantitative metallography, Color metallography, Microstructure
National Category
Metallurgy and Metallic Materials
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:hj:diva-28880DOI: 10.1007/s13632-015-0250-0ISI: 000377604200007Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-84960404906OAI: oai:DiVA.org:hj-28880DiVA, id: diva2:891457
Projects
Spofic II
Funder
VINNOVA, 2013-04720
Note

One of five papers selected for the 2016 Editor’s Choice.

Available from: 2016-01-07 Created: 2016-01-07 Last updated: 2019-05-13Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. On the solidification of compacted and spheroidal graphite irons
Open this publication in new window or tab >>On the solidification of compacted and spheroidal graphite irons
2017 (English)Licentiate thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

A good understanding of the solidification process of a cast material is essential to understand how the combination of alloy composition and the casting process variables combines into the solid cast component and its performance. The wrong combination may result in poor performance or casting defects. Spheroidal graphite has been well researched in ductile irons (SGI) where it is predominant. Spheroidal graphite is also present in smaller amounts in compacted graphite irons (CGI), but its nature and role in this material is less understood. Recent associations of spheroidal graphite in CGI with shrinkage porosity problems highlights the need for better understanding in this area. The importance of the dendritic austenite structure to the properties and solidification behaviour of cast irons has been highlighted in recent research. However, progress is to a degree limited by lack of practical means to characterize the structure.

In the present work, the transition of a cast iron from SGI to CGI though remelting was studied. As the fraction of SG dropped, the tips of the compacted graphite tended to lose contact with the melt at a later stage. After this occurred, solidification appeared to be dominated by spheroidal graphite. Compacted and spheroidal graphite was found to solidify mostly segregated, and the increased recallescence induced by a higher fraction of compacted graphite displayed small influence on the size distribution of spheroidal graphite apart from the total number and fraction. The partitioning of Si, Mn and Cu in SGI and CGI was found to agree well with each other, as well as with theoretical predictions under the assumptions of zero diffusion of the elements in the solid. This shows that the proportions of spheroidal and compacted graphite has small or no influence on the evolution of these elements in the melt during solidification. A method for characterization of the dendritic austenite in quenched cast irons was introduced and evaluated. The method includes a technique for producing a visual contrast between the ledeburite matrix and the dendritic austenite, and a scheme for producing binary images from the resulting micrographs which are suitable for automatic image analysis. Measurements of the volume fraction and surface area per unit volume of the dendritic austenite structure using the introduced method was found to agree reasonably with traditional point counting and line intercept techniques. The difficulty in finding the exact boundary was proposed to be the major source of systematic disagreement.

Abstract [sv]

En god förståelse för stelningsprocessen av ett gjutet material är väsentligt för att förstå hur kombinationen av legeringens kemiska sammansättning och gjutprocessens variabler resulterar i den stelnade komponenten och dess prestanda. Fel kombination kan resultera i sänkt prestanda eller gjutdefekter. Sfärisk grafit är väl studerad i segjärn (SGI) där grafitmorfologin är dominant. Mindre mängder sfärisk grafit är dock närvarande även i kompaktgrafit, där dess karaktär och roll är mindre känd. Samband mellan sfärisk grafit i kompaktgrafitjärn och krympporositet understryker behovet av bättre förståelse inom detta område. Dessutom har betydelsen av den tidiga dendritiska austenitstrukturen för senare delen av stelningen uppmärksammats. Utveckling inom detta område är dessvärre till en grad begränsad av bristen på kunskap om praktiska metoder för att karaktärisera dess struktur.

I detta arbete studerades övergången från segjärn till kompaktgrafit genom omsmältning. Vid sänkt fraktion sfärisk grafit visade sig kompaktgrafiten tappa kontakten med smältan vid senare stadie av stelningen. Efter detta inträffade, dominerades stelningen till synes av tillväxt av sfärisk grafit. Kompaktgrafit och sfärisk grafit bildades i huvudsak segregerade. Ökad rekallesens till följd av ökad fraktion kompaktgrafit visade sig ha låg inverkan på storleksfördelningen av eutektisk sfärisk grafit bortsett från dess totala antal och fraktion. Omfördelningen av Si, Mn och Cu mellan stelnad matris och smälta i segjärn och kompaktgrafitjärn fanns stämma bra överens med varandra, samt med teoretiska värden med antagande om försumbar diffusion i stelnad matris. Detta visar att proportionerna av sfärisk och kompaktgrafit har liten eller ingen inverkan på halten av dessa ämnen i smältan under stelningen. En metod för karaktärisering av den dendritiska austenitstrukturen i släckt gjutjärn introducerades och utvärderades. Metoden inkluderar en teknik för att åstadkomma kontrast mellan ledeburitmatrisen och den dendritiska austeniten, och en teknik för att producera binära bilder från resulterande mikroskopbilder som är lämpliga för automatisk bildanalys. Mätningar av volymfraktion och yta per volymenhet av dendritstrukturen genom tillämpning av den introducerade metoden visade rimlig överensstämmelse med traditionella punktfraktion‐ och linjetekniker. Svårigheten att hitta den exakta gränslinjen mellan dendritisk struktur och ledeburit föreslogs vara den huvudsakliga källan till systematisk oöverensstämmelse.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Jönköping: Jönköping University, School of Engineering, 2017. p. 48
Series
JTH Dissertation Series ; 24
Keywords
Compacted graphite iron, Spheroidal graphite iron, Solidification, Microsegregation, Kompaktgrafitjärn, segjärn, stelning, mikrosegregation
National Category
Metallurgy and Metallic Materials
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hj:diva-35533 (URN)9789187289255 (ISBN)
Supervisors
Available from: 2017-05-16 Created: 2017-05-16 Last updated: 2020-12-25Bibliographically approved
2. Morphological characterization of primary austenite in cast iron
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Morphological characterization of primary austenite in cast iron
2017 (English)Licentiate thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Automotive industry products portfolio includes a wide variety of complex‐shaped cast iron products, such as truck engine components, that need to withstand a constant trend of higher demands, especially urged by stricter environmental regulations on emissions. Combined with this continued demand on properties improvement, cast iron industry faces a process problem related to the lack of understanding of solidification and mechanisms behind defect formation.

Casting products are highly affected by the product design and the manufacturing method itself, which governs the final microstructure and hence the final mechanical properties. Wall thickness of the moulding material strongly influences the solidification time, varying the microstructural coarseness, resulting in a component with different properties depending on the local shape of the casting.

The main objective of this work is the characterization of the primary austenite microstructure and its coarsening process, which has been poorly documented in cast iron literature, to allow the prediction and control of these microstructural features present in the casting.

The microstructural evolution of the primary austenite in hypoeutectic lamellar graphite iron (LGI) is studied under isothermal coarsening conditions. The dendritic microstructure suffered major morphological changes that included dendrite fragmentation, globularization, and coalescence. Empirical relations based on morphological parameters are introduced to predict the microstructural evolution of primary austenite. A novel technique for colour‐etching and semi‐automatic image analysis for the characterization of quenched dendritic microstructures in cast iron is presented. A new experimental technique for production of graphitic iron with varying nodularity is presented as a solution to control the production of compacted (CGI) and spheroidal graphite iron (SGI) under laboratory conditions. The nodularity evolution is controlled as a function of the holding time and the residual Mg, allowing the study of the primary solidification and primary microstructures of hypoeutectic CGI and SGI in future investigations.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Jönköping: Jönköping University, School of Engineering, 2017. p. 50
Series
JTH Dissertation Series ; 23
Keywords
Lamellar Graphite Iron, Solidification, Primary Austenite, Microstructure Evolution, Dendritic coarsening, Compacted Graphite Iron, Magnesium Fading, Nodularity
National Category
Metallurgy and Metallic Materials
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hj:diva-35585 (URN)9789187289248 (ISBN)
Supervisors
Available from: 2017-05-22 Created: 2017-05-22 Last updated: 2017-08-16Bibliographically approved
3. The role of primary austenite morphology in cast iron
Open this publication in new window or tab >>The role of primary austenite morphology in cast iron
2019 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Automotive industry products portfolio includes a wide variety of complex-shaped cast iron products, such as truck engine components. Urged by strict environmental regulations on emissions, these components constantly need to combine higher demands on performance with lighter designs. As a result, cast iron industry continuously faces new challenges related to solidification of new alloys, component designs and casting processes.

Complex shapes, variations in the thickness of the casting and the molding material strongly influence the solidification time for a component, thus varying its microstructural coarseness and hence showing different properties depending on the local shape of the casting.

This work increases our understanding of the morphological evolution of primary austenite occurring during isothermal coarsening at the semi-solid state. New experimental techniques have been developed to show that primary austenite coarsens according to the Ostwald ripening model in lamellar (LGI), compacted (CGI)and spheroidal (SGI) graphite iron. Significant morphological changes occur after long coarsening times, including dendrite fragmentation and coalescence. The quantitative characterization of the morphological changes during coarsening is accurately described by morphological parameters, i.e., Mγ, DIDHyd and DγNN.

Subsequently, the impact of primary austenite morphology on the eutectic microstructures in CGI and SGI has been investigated. It was observed that the eutectic microstructures are not significantly affected by the surface area of primary austenite and the size of the interdendritic regions. Fraction, nodularity, shape distribution of graphite particles and the number of nodules and eutectic cells are similar as a function of coarsening time. These results suggest that the nucleation frequency and growth of eutectic microstructures are not significantly influenced by the morphology of primary austenite.

Furthermore, miniaturized tensile tests demonstrated that the UTS in CGI is directly related to the primary austenite morphology. The UTS decreases with the increasing coarseness of primary austenite, showing an inverse linear relation to Mγ, DIDHyd and DγNN. These results demonstrate the strong impact of primary austenite morphology on UTS when the eutectic and eutectoid microstructures are similar, emphasizing the importance of incorporating the morphology of primary austenite in our models.

Abstract [sv]

Fordonsindustrins produktportfölj innehåller en mängd olika gjutjärnskomponenter med komplicerad geometri, exempelvis komponenter till lastbilsmotorer. Skärpt lagstiftning beträffande olika miljöpåverkande utsläpp har höjt kraven på sådana komponenter vad gäller både mekaniska egenskaper och vikt. Gjutjärnsgjuterierna måste ständigt hantera nya utmaningar beträffande stelning av ny legeringar, komponentkonstruktion och gjutprocesser.

Den lokala stelningstiden kommer att variera med varierande tjocklek på såväl gjutstycke som formmaterial vilket ger stora variationer i mikrostrukturens grovlek. Denna mikrostrukturvariation leder till väsentliga skillnader i mekaniska egenskaper inom ett gjutstycke med komplex geometri.

I detta arbete studeras hur den primära austenitens morfologi förändras under så kallad isoterm förgrovning i gjutjärn i delvis stelnat tillstånd. Nyutvecklade experimentella metoder har använts för att visa att austeniten i gjutjärn med lamellärgrafit (LGI), vermikulär/kompakt grafit (CGI) samt sfärisk grafit (SGI) förgrovas i enlighet med Ostwalds modell för förgrovning. Austenitmorfologin förändras högstavsevärt efter långa hålltider vid relevanta temperaturer för förgrovning, även genom dendritfragmentering och koalescens. Morfologiförändringarna kankvantifieras tämligen väl med morfologiparametrarna Mγ, DIDHyd och DγNN.

Vidare har den primära austenitens påverkan på den eutektiska mikrostrukturen i CGI och SGI studerats. En observation var att den eutektiska mikrostrukturen inte påverkas av ytarean av den primära austeniten eller av storleken av de interdendritiska områdena. Fraktionen grafit, nodulariteten, grafitens formfördelning, antalet noduler samt antalet eutektiska celler påverkas på likartat sätt av förgrovningsprocessen. Detta antyder att kärnbildningsfrekvensen och tillväxten av eutektisk struktur inte påverkas i någon större utsträckning av den primära austenitens morfologi.

Dragprovning av stavar i miniatyrformat visade att dragbrottgränsen (UTS) hos CGI är direkt beroende av den primära austenitens morfologi. UTS är linjärt avtagande med ökande Mγ, DIDHyd och DγNN vilket visar att den primära austenitens morfologi har en stark påverkan på gjutjärns mekaniska egenskaper. Alltså bör de modeller som används för att prediktera gjutjärns egenskaper innehålla den primära austenitens morfologi.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Jönköping: Jönköping University, School of Engineering, 2019. p. 74
Series
JTH Dissertation Series ; 040
Keywords
Solidification, Cast Iron, Primary Austenite, Microstructure Evolution, Coarsening, LGI, CGI, SGI, UTS, stelning, gjutjärn, primär austenit, mikrostrukturbildning, förgrovning, LGI, CGI, SGI, UTS
National Category
Materials Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hj:diva-43553 (URN)978-91-87289-42-2 (ISBN)
Public defence
2019-05-21, E1405, School of Engineering, Jönköping, 10:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2019-04-29 Created: 2019-04-29 Last updated: 2019-04-29Bibliographically approved
4. Compacted graphite iron: On solidification phenomena related to shrinkage defects
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Compacted graphite iron: On solidification phenomena related to shrinkage defects
2019 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

An improved understanding of solidification of compacted graphite iron (CGI) is necessary to predict shrinkage related casting defects. Spheroidal graphite is not only found in ductile iron (SGI) but usually also in CGI, but its characteristics and role in this material is less understood. Uncertainties also remain regarding the segregation of alloying elements in cast irons. This is important because of its important role in the solidification process. The dendritic austenite structure has received little attention in cast iron research. A good understanding of the development of this structure is important to understand feeding of melt through the solidifying material.

Nodularity is a measure of the amount of spheroidal versus compacted graphite in the microstructure. At a lower nodularity, the compacted graphite tips were found to grow in contact with the melt for a longer time before being encapsulated in the austenite. Moreover, as the nodularity was reduced, the subpopulation of larger spheroidal graphite gradually disappeared, reducing the bimodal size distribution to unimodal.

Segregation of Si, Mn and Cu in SGI and CGI with a solidification time of near 10 min was found to be rather predictable under assumptions of no diffusion in austenite and complete mixing in the melt. Gradients of these elements contribute to a decrease in the driving force for diffusion of carbon into the austenite from the liquid, which is important for the growth of graphite which is separated from the liquid by austenite.

During solidification of a near-eutectic CGI, the carbon concentration of austenite was found to deviate considerably from local equilibrium with graphite during solidification. This is important to consider in growth models for graphite by diffusion of carbon through a barrier of austenite.

Micropores were shown to have displaced liquid from the solid structure at a late stage of solidification when solidification was slowing down and the temperature of the casting was falling at an increasing rate.

The development of dendritic austenite in a near eutectic CGI was investigated. The contact area between liquid and the dendritic structure exceeded the contact area between liquid and eutectic cells through the dominant part of solidification. This highlights the importance of good understanding of the development of this structure in order to predict feeding of melt through the solidifying material. The coarsening of the structure was found to proceed at a higher rate compared to studies under isothermal condition. The dendritic structure continued to grow in parallel with the eutectic by a combination of thickening and dendritic growth.

Abstract [sv]

En förbättrad förståelse av stelningsförloppet hos kompaktgrafitjärn (CGI) är nödvändig för att förutbestämma krymprelaterade gjutdefekter. Nodulär grafit förekommer inte bara i segjärn (SGI) utan vanligtvis även i CGI, men dess karaktär och roll är mindre känd för detta material. Osäkerheter kvarstår även kring segring av legeringsämnen i gjutjärn, vilket spelar en viktig roll under dess stelningsförlopp. Dendritisk austenitstruktur har fått relativt lite uppmärksamhet bland forskare inom gjutjärn. God kunskap om dess utveckling är viktigt för att förstå matning av smälta genom stelningsförloppet.

Nodularitet är ett mått på andelen nodulär kontra kompakt grafitmorfologi i mikrostrukturen. Vid lägre nodularitet visades kompaktgrafitens extremiter växa i kontakt med smältan en längre period innan de inneslöts av austenit. Gruppen av större nodular försvann dessutom gradvis vid lägre nodularitet, vilket reducerade den starkt bimodala storleksfördelningen till unimodal.

Segring av Si, Mn och Cu i SGI och CGI med stelningstid på nära 10 min fanns förutbestämbar under antaganden om obetydlig diffusion i austenit och omedelbar blandning med smältan. Gradienter av dessa element bidrar till en sänkt drivkraft för diffusion av kol mot austenitens inre, vilket är viktigt för tillväxt av nodulär grafit.

Under stelning av ett nära eutektiskt CGI fanns kolhalten i austenit avvika avsevärt från lokal jämvikt med grafit under stelningen. Detta är viktigt att ta hänsyn till i modeller för tillväxt av grafit genom diffusion av kol genom en barriär av austenit.

En studie av mikroporer visade att dessa trängt undan smälta mellan stelnad struktur i ett sent stadie av stelningen, med avtagande stelningshastighet och ökande temperaturfall.

Utvecklingen av dendritstruktur i ett nära eutektiskt kompaktgrafitjärn undersöktes. Smältans kontaktyta mot denna struktur överskred kontaktyta mot eutektiska stelningskroppar genom större delen av stelningen. Detta visar att en god förståelse för dendritstrukturens utveckling genom stelningen är viktig för att beskriva matning av smälta genom stelnande struktur. Förgrovning av strukturen visades fortskrida i högre takt genom stelningen jämfört med studier vid isotermiskt tillstånd. Dendritstrukturen fortsatte växa parallellt med eutektisk stelning genom en kombination av homoepitaxial och dendritisk tillväxt.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Jönköping: Jönköping University, School of Engineering, 2019. p. 69
Series
JTH Dissertation Series ; 046
Keywords
Compacted graphite iron, Spheroidal graphite iron, Solidification, Microsegregation, Porosity, Kompaktgrafitjärn, segjärn, stelning, mikrosegregation, porositet
National Category
Metallurgy and Metallic Materials
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hj:diva-43661 (URN)978-91-87289-49-1 (ISBN)
Public defence
2019-06-12, E1405, School of Engineering, Jönköping, 10:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2019-05-13 Created: 2019-05-13 Last updated: 2019-05-22Bibliographically approved

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