This paper presents an extensive systematic literature review with the aim of identifying and classifying issues in the information classification process. The classification selected uses human and organizational factors for grouping the identified issues. The results reveal that policy-related issues are most commonly described, but not necessarily the most crucial ones. Furthermore, gaps in the research field are identified in order to outline paths for further research.

This paper presents a comprehensive systematic literature review of information classification (IC) enablers. We propose a classification based on the well-known levels of management: strategic, tactical and operational. The results reveal that a large number of enablers could be adopted to increase the applicability of IC in organizations. The results also indicate that there is not one single enabler solving the problem, but rather several enablers can influence the adoption.

InfoSec policies are considered a key mechanism in information security, and most organizations have one. However, the large majority of security policy research has focused on what policies should include rather than how they are accomplished in practice. To contribute to overcoming the lack of knowledge regarding this crucial aspect, this paper investigates information security policies based on what underlying approaches information classification practices are built on and the perceived ease of turning the policy into practice. To do so, a survey was sent to 284 Swedish government agencies, and 80 of their internal policies were collected as data. The data were analyzed both qualitatively, and qualitatively. The results show that information classification adoption rates are low despite being mandatory and that agencies are struggling in closing the gap between standards and practice. Furthermore, the results also show that information classification policies need to be more specific and give more actionable advice regarding, e.g., how information life-cycle management is included in practice, and where the responsibility for classification is put in the organization.

Purpose: The study aims to revisit six previously defined challenges in information security risk management to provide insights into new challenges based on current practices. Design/methodology/approach: The study is based on an empirical study consisting of in-depth interviews with representatives from public sector organisations. The data were analysed by applying a practice-based view, i.e. the lens of knowing (or knowings). The results were validated by an expert panel. Findings: Managerial and organisational concerns that go beyond a technical perspective have been found, which affect the ongoing social build-up of knowledge in everyday information security work. Research limitations/implications: The study has delimitation as it consists of data from four public sector organisations, i.e. statistical analyses have not been in focus, while implying a better understanding of what and why certain actions are practised in their security work. Practical implications: The new challenges that have been identified offer a refined set of actionable advice to practitioners, which, for example, can support cost-efficient decisions and avoid unnecessary security trade-offs. Originality/value: Information security is increasingly relevant for organisations, yet little is still known about how related risks are handled in practice. Recent studies have indicated a gap between the espoused and the actual actions. Insights from actual, situated enactment of practice can advise on process adaption and suggest more fit approaches. 

In this paper, the formal processes so often assumed in information security risk management and its activities are investigated. For instance, information classification, risk analysis, and security controls are often presented in a predominantly instrumental progression. This approach, however, has received scholarly criticism, as it omits social and organizational aspects, creating a gap between formal and actual processes. This study argues that there is an incomplete understanding of how the activities within these processes actually interplay in practice. For this study, senior information security managers from four major Swedish government agencies were interviewed. As a result, twelve characteristics are presented that reflect an interplay between activities and that have implications for research, as well as for developers of standards and guidelines. The study’s conclusions suggest that the information security risk management process should be seen more as an emerging process, where each activity interplays dynamically in response to new requirements and organizational and social challenges.

Today, information is a key asset for many organisations. Reducing risks of information compromise is increasingly prioritised. However, there is an incomplete understanding of how organisations with limited security knowledge and experience manage information security risks in practice. Previous studies have suggested that security-novice employees faced with burdensome, complex, and ambiguous security requirements can experience security-related stress (SRS), and ultimately influence their security decisions. In this study, we further this research stream by suggesting that SRS can similarly be found with security-novice managers responsible for developing and practising information security risk management (ISRM). Two organisations were targeted in the study using a case study approach, to obtain data about their practices, using SRS as an analytical lens. The study found various examples where SRS influenced security-novice managers’ decisions, and identifies several stressors and stress inhibitors in the ISRM process and supporting ISRM tools, and discusses the implications for practitioners.

This paper presents a systematic literature review performed to investigate if there is a prevailing definition of reference implementation in the standards community, and how reference implementations are referenced to be used within the standards community. The literature review targets all electronically available core journals and conferences in the field, and the results are classified according to a framework introduced in the paper. We found that there is one definition that focuses on conformance testing, but the results from the literature review show more uses of reference implementations such as when developing standards, when implementing them, and when developing products.

På uppdrag av Myndigheten för samhällsskydd och beredskap (MSB) har en studie genomförts med syftet att komplettera resultatet från en tidigare genomförd förstudie (Åhlfeldt m.fl., 2014) med en analys av kompetensförsörjning och kompetensbehov på informations­säkerhetsområdet från ett samhällsperspektiv. Arbetet har genomförts av forskare från två lärosäten, Högskolan i Skövde och Karlstad Universitet, samt inom tre forskningsdiscipliner: pedagogik, informationssäkerhet och företagsekonomi.

Uppdraget har varit att besvara följande frågeställningar:

• Vilka är kompetensbehoven för att ha en god och balanserad informationssäkerhet som bidrar till samhällets informationssäkerhet?
  • Samtida kompetensbehov (nuläget)
  • Framtida kompetensbehov
  • Hur ska nödvändig kompetens erhållas och på vem ligger ansvaret?
  • Utifrån ovanstående frågeställningar, vilka är de viktigaste framgångsfaktorerna?

Arbetet har genomförts i form av fokusgrupper med representanter från myndigheter och företag som har en nära verksamhetskoppling till samhällets informationssäkerhet och som är viktiga för att samhällets informationssäkerhet ska fungera.

Resultatet visar att det finns stora brister avseende informationssäkerhetskompetens på alla nivåer i samhället. Tre tydliga områden pekas ut 1) nationellt - ökat behov av starkare styrning och ledning samt kravställning 2) organisation - ökat behov av kompetens från ledning till medarbetare men med starkt fokus på kompetenshöjande åtgärder på ledningsnivå samt vid upphandling och 3) medborgarperspektivet där framförallt skolområdet lyfts fram som ett viktigt insatsområde för kompetenshöjande åtgärder.

För att uppnå nödvändig kompetens krävs utbildningsinsatser på alla ovan angivna områden. Dels utbildningar på akademisk nivå för informationssäkerhetsexperter men även övriga utbildningar inom t ex juridik och ekonomi. Även yrkesverksamma på organisationsnivå behöver riktade kompetenshöjande åtgärder som sätter informationssäkerhet i fokus utifrån organisationens verksamhetsbehov, allt ifrån ledningsnivå till medarbetarnivå.

Resultatet visar även att ansvaret för samhällets kompetensförsörjning för informationssäkerhet ligger även den på alla ovan nämnda tre områden men med tydlig betoning på nationell nivå. Här betonas behovet av nationella krav för att medvetandegöra och lyfta informations­säkerheten i samhällsviktig verksamhet för att nå så många medborgare som möjligt.  

Förslag på framtida arbete avseende utveckling av metoder för framtida studier av kompetensförsörjningen pekar främst på metoder för att angripa bristen på helhetssyn samt kompetensförsörjning för management och medborgare.

In this study, the enactment of information security risk management by novice practitioners is studied by applying an analytical lens of security-related stress. Two organisations were targeted in the study using a case study approach to obtain data about their practices. The study identifies stressors and stress inhibitors in the ISRM process and the supporting ISRM tools and discusses the implications for practitioners. For example, a mismatch between security standards and how they are interpreted in practice has been identified. This mismatch was further found to be strengthened by the design of the used ISRM tools. Those design shortcomings hamper agility since they may enforce a specific workflow or may restrict documentation. The study concludes that security-related stress can provide additional insight into security-novice practitioners' ISRM challenges.