Ethics is the study of the normative dimensions of human relations and experiences. This chapter discusses such questions in relation to basic values in modern society. The normative foundations for the analysis are the values of human dignity, autonomy, freedom, equality, and solidarity, as well as the responsibilities of society toward its citizens, including freedom, security, and justice. The questions that are brought up touch on how implementing nutrigenetics and nutrigenomics in personalized nutrition services relates to these values.

Health and food are primary human needs. The choice of food can contribute to the support of health, but it can also come into conflict with health. Personalized nutrition may be seen as part of a wider trend toward early preventive actions to treat susceptibility to disease. If personalization of nutrition can contribute to eating habits that support health instead of threatening it, this will be beneficial for the individual, but it may also be good for society as a whole. As a consequence, pressure on societal expenses for health care may be reduced.

Personalized nutrition, as well as the wider concept of precision nutrition, have stimulated expectations and are often described as having great potential, but it has also been difficult to realize them. Studies indicate that there is widespread optimism among researchers engaged in nutrigenetics and nutrigenomics regarding at least its long-term benefits, whereas there are divergent viewpoints within the wider research community. In this situation, ethical concerns need to receive attention.

The objectives of Food4Me work package 5 included a baseline assessment of the ethical and legal aspects of personalised nutrition at the start of the project in 2011, as well as a final assessment at the end of the project (2015), taking into account results achieved in other work packages. The initial assessment made a number of ethical issues visible, most of them relating to the consumer of personalised nutrition service. The results depicted in this publication indicate that many of the questions raised in relation to these issues remain unsolved, and in some cases they seem to be neglected in relation to the services offered by internet companies.